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Xiongnu

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</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Xiongnu</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">3rd century BC–2nd century AD</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1291884410">

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</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:300px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:300px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:300px"><div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0"></div><div id="annotation_275x03" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:03px; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; font-size:10; line-height:12px; text-align:center;"><a href="150_BC" title="150 BC">-150</a></div><div id="annotation_100x73" style="position:absolute; left:100px; top:73px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">GRECO BACTRIANS</a></div><div id="annotation_83x71" style="position:absolute; left:83px; top:71px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">PAR- THIA</a></div><div id="annotation_115x27" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:27px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Sargat_culture" title="Sargat culture">Sargat</a></div><div id="annotation_140x73" style="position:absolute; left:140px; top:73px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><a href="Shule_Kingdom" title="Shule Kingdom">Shule</a></div><div id="annotation_125x89" style="position:absolute; left:125px; top:89px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Indo-Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greeks">INDO- GREEKS</a></div><div id="annotation_130x35" style="position:absolute; left:130px; top:35px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">SAKAS</a></div><div id="annotation_130x45" style="position:absolute; left:130px; top:45px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Korgantas_culture" title="Korgantas culture">Korgantas</a></div><div id="annotation_102x62" style="position:absolute; left:102px; top:62px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">YUEZHI</a></div><div id="annotation_51x136" style="position:absolute; left:51px; top:136px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Sabaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaeans">SABEANS</a></div><div id="annotation_225x74" style="position:absolute; left:225px; top:74px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Ordos_culture" title="Ordos culture">Ordos culture</a></div><div id="annotation_285x80" style="position:absolute; left:285px; top:80px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Jin_(Korean_state)" title="Jin (Korean state)">JIN</a></div><div id="annotation_175x29" style="position:absolute; left:175px; top:29px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><a href="Tagar_culture" title="Tagar culture">Tagar</a></div><div id="annotation_190x37" style="position:absolute; left:190px; top:37px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><a href="Sagly-Bazhy_culture" title="Sagly-Bazhy culture">Sagly</a></div><div id="annotation_135x59" style="position:absolute; left:135px; top:59px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Wusun" title="Wusun">WUSUN</a></div><div id="annotation_210x110" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:110px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Dian_kingdom" title="Dian kingdom">Dian culture</a></div><div id="annotation_48x87" style="position:absolute; left:48px; top:87px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">SELEUCID EMPIRE</a></div><div id="annotation_137x113" style="position:absolute; left:137px; top:113px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">MAURYA EMPIRE</a></div><div id="annotation_235x94" style="position:absolute; left:235px; top:94px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">HAN DYNASTY</a></div><div id="annotation_200x52" style="position:absolute; left:200px; top:52px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px;"></div><div id="annotation_148x82" style="position:absolute; left:148px; top:82px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><a href="Khotan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan Kingdom">Khotan</a></div><div id="annotation_02x100" style="position:absolute; left:02px; top:100px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Ptolemaic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Empire">PTOLE- MIES</a></div><div id="annotation_05x131" style="position:absolute; left:05px; top:131px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">MEROË</a></div><div id="annotation_20x42" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:42px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a></div><div id="annotation_80x45" style="position:absolute; left:80px; top:45px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Yancai" title="Yancai">Alans</a></div><div id="annotation_210x70" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:70px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="Shajing_culture" title="Shajing culture">Sha- jing</a></div></div></div></div></div><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Territory of the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BC (before the <a href="Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_Wars" title="Han–Xiongnu Wars">Han–Xiongnu Wars</a> of 133 BC – 89 AD): it includes <a href="Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, east <a href="Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, east <a href="Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>, south <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, and parts of northern <a href="China" title="China">China</a> such as western <a href="Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, <a href="Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a> and <a href="Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data">Longcheng<a href="#cite_note-yuuu86-384-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Xiongnu_language" title="Xiongnu language">various</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a>, <a href="Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a>, <a href="Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Xiongnu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribal</a> <a href="Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Chanyu" title="Chanyu">Chanyu</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 220–209 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Touman" title="Touman">Touman</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 209–174 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modu</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 174–161 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Laoshang_Chanyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Laoshang Chanyu">Laoshang</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 46 AD </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Wudadihou" title="Wudadihou">Wudadihou</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3rd century BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2nd century AD</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

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<td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td>

<td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="Slab_Grave_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave Culture">Slab Grave Culture</a>

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu people</a>

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a>

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</td>

<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="Ordos_culture" title="Ordos culture">Ordos culture</a>

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</tbody></table>

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a>

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate</a>

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a>

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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a>

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</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

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<table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Xiongnu</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">匈奴</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Xiōngnú</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄒㄩㄥㄋㄨˊ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Spelling_in_Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Shiongnu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hsiung1-nu2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Syong-nú</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">IPA</th><td class="infobox-data">[ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hūng-nòuh</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hung1-nou4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">IPA</th><td class="infobox-data">[hʊŋ˥.nɔw˩]</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hing-lôo</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese#Baxter–Sagart_(2014)" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">Baxter–Sagart (2014)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">*qʰoŋ.nˤa</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese#Zhengzhang_(1981–1995)" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">Zhengzhang</a></th><td class="infobox-data">qʰoŋ.na:<a href="#cite_note-:01-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-8">[8]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="History_of_Mongolia" title="History of Mongolia">History of Mongolia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal;">

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_Mongolian_history" title="Timeline of Mongolian history">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Mongol_states" title="List of Mongol states">States</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Mongol_rulers" title="List of Mongol rulers">Rulers</a></li>

<li>People

<ul><li>History</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mongolian_nobility" title="Mongolian nobility">Nobility</a></li>

<li><a href="Culture_of_Mongolia" title="Culture of Mongolia">Culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_of_Mongolia" title="Politics of Mongolia">Politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Geography_of_Mongolia" title="Geography of Mongolia">Geography</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Religion</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Prehistoric_Mongolia" title="Prehistoric Mongolia">Prehistoric</a> period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 3300–2500 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Chemurchek_culture" title="Chemurchek culture">Chemurchek culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2750–1900 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Munkhkhairkhan_culture" title="Munkhkhairkhan culture">Munkhkhairkhan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1800–1600 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Sagsai_culture" title="Sagsai culture">Sagsai culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500–1000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Ulaanzuukh_culture" title="Ulaanzuukh culture">Ulaanzuukh culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1450–1150 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Deer_stones_culture" title="Deer stones culture">Deer stones culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1400–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Slab-grave_culture" title="Slab-grave culture">Slab-grave culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1100–300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Chandman_culture" title="Chandman culture">Chandman culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 700–300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Pazyryk_culture" title="Pazyryk culture">Pazyryk culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 600–300 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> </td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 209 BC–93 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Xianbei_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Xianbei state">Xianbei state</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 93–234</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Dai_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Dai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 310–376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 330–555</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 386–535</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 557–581</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> (<a href="First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a>, <a href="Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a>,

and <a href="Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganates</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 555–630 682–744</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Xueyantuo" title="Xueyantuo">Xueyantuo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 628–646</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_North" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the North">Tang protectorate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 647–682</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 744–840</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 907–1125</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="List_of_medieval_Mongol_tribes_and_clans" title="List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans">Mongol khanates</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 9th–12th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Khamag_Mongol" title="Khamag Mongol">Khamag Mongol</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1130–1206</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1206–1368</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1271–1368</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1368–1635</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat Confederation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1399–1634</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1634–1757</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Qing dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1691–1911</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Modern period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">National Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1911</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd Khaganate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1911–1919</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Chinese occupation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1921</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">People's Revolution</a> (<a href="Soviet_intervention_in_Mongolia" title="Soviet intervention in Mongolia">Soviet intervention in Bogd Khanate</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1921 1921–1924</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Mongolian_People's_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">People's Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1924–1992</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Democratic Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="History_of_modern_Mongolia" title="History of modern Mongolia">Modern Mongolia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1990–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

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The Xiongnu (<a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 匈奴,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> [ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]) were a tribal <a href="Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> of <a href="Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic peoples</a> who, according to ancient <a href="Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese sources</a>, inhabited the eastern <a href="Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a> from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. <a href="Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modu Chanyu</a>, the supreme leader after 209 BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004186-11">[11]</a>

After overthrowing their previous overlords,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> the <a href="Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>, the Xiongnu became the dominant power on the <a href="Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a> of <a href="East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, centred on the <a href="Mongolian_Plateau" title="Mongolian Plateau">Mongolian Plateau</a>. The Xiongnu were also active in areas now part of <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, <a href="Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and <a href="Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>. Their relations with the <a href="Chinese_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese dynasties">Chinese dynasties</a> to the south-east were complex—alternating between various periods of peace, war, and subjugation. Ultimately, the Xiongnu were defeated by the <a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> in a <a href="Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_Wars" title="Han–Xiongnu Wars">centuries-long conflict</a>, which led to the confederation splitting in two, and forcible resettlement of large numbers of Xiongnu within Han borders. During the <a href="Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> era, listed as one of the "<a href="Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Five Barbarians</a>", their descendants founded the dynastic states of <a href="Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a>, <a href="Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a> and <a href="Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Helian Xia</a> and during the <a href="Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> founded <a href="Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a> (founded by member of <a href="Yuwen" title="Yuwen">Yuwen</a> tribe of Xiongnu origin) in northern China.

Attempts to associate the Xiongnu with the nearby <a href="Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a> and <a href="Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a> were once controversial. However, <a href="Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">archaeogenetics</a> has confirmed their interaction with the Xiongnu, and also possibly their relation to the <a href="Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>. The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses, because only a few words, mainly titles and personal names, were preserved in the Chinese sources. The name Xiongnu may be <a href="Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> with that of the Huns or the <a href="Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage19_19,_26–27]-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank200017-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014257,_264-15">[15]</a> although this is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009pp._404–405,_notes_51–52-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-vaissiere2006-17">[17]</a> Other linguistic links—all of them also controversial—proposed by scholars include <a href="Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1975136-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Harmatta488-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey198521–45-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowski200626–27-26">[26]</a> <a href="Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Tumen-27">[27]</a> <a href="Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004166-28">[28]</a> <a href="Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009pp._404–405,_notes_51–52-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdas200188-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> or multi-ethnic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeng2005-33">[33]</a>

The word "Xiōngnú" means "fierce slave."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearce2023128-34">[34]</a> They were identified by the Han Chinese as invaders from the north who rode on horseback.<a href="#cite_note-Zeldovich_2023-35">[35]</a> The pronunciation of 匈奴 as Xiōngnú [ɕjʊ́ŋnǔ] is the modern <a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a> pronunciation, from the Mandarin dialect spoken now in Beijing, which came into existence less than 1,000 years ago. "The <a href="Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> pronunciation has been reconstructed as *xiuoŋ-na or *qhoŋna.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Sinologist Axel Schuessler (2014) reconstructs the pronunciations of 匈奴 as *hoŋ-nâ in Late <a href="Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 318 BC) and as *hɨoŋ-nɑ in <a href="Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han Chinese</a>; citing other Chinese transcriptions wherein the velar nasal medial -ŋ-, after a short vowel, seemingly played the role of a general nasal – sometimes equivalent to n or m –, Schuessler proposes that 匈奴 Xiongnu < *hɨoŋ-nɑ < *hoŋ-nâ might be a Chinese rendition, Han or even pre-Han, of foreign *Hŏna or *Hŭna, which Schuessler compares to <a href="Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> and Sanskrit <a href="Huna_people" title="Huna people">Hūṇā</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014257,_264-15">[15]</a> However, the same medial -ŋ- prompts Christopher P. Atwood (2015) to reconstruct *Xoŋai, which he derives from the <a href="Ongi_River" title="Ongi River">Ongi River</a> (<a href="Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: Онги гол) in <a href="Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> and suggests that it was originally a dynastic name rather than an ethnic name.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Timeline_of_the_Xiongnu" title="Timeline of the Xiongnu">Timeline of the Xiongnu</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predecessors">Predecessors</h3></div>

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</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Afanasievo</li><li>culture</li></ul></div></a></div>

<div id="annotation_315x35" style="position:absolute; left:315px; top:35px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Ancient Northeast</li><li>Asians</li></ul></div></a></div>

</div>

</div>

<div class="thumbcaption">Early <a href="Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a> from the <a href="Pontic_steppes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppes">Pontic steppes</a> and across Central Asia, and encounter with <a href="Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">Ancient Northeast Asian</a> populations.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></div>

</div></div>

The territories associated with the Xiongnu in central/east Mongolia were previously inhabited by the <a href="Slab_Grave_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave Culture">Slab Grave Culture</a> (<a href="Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">Ancient Northeast Asian</a> origin), which persisted until the 3rd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Genetic research indicates that the Slab Grave people were the primary ancestors of the Xiongnu, and that the Xiongnu formed through substantial and complex mixture with West Eurasians.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>

During the <a href="Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> (1045–771 BC), there were numerous conflicts with nomadic tribes from the north and the northwest, variously known as the <a href="Xianyun" title="Xianyun">Xianyun</a>, <a href="Guifang" title="Guifang">Guifang</a>, or various "Rong" tribes, such as the <a href="Xirong" title="Xirong">Xirong</a>, <a href="Shanrong" title="Shanrong">Shanrong</a> or <a href="Quanrong" title="Quanrong">Quanrong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WT-41">[41]</a> These tribes are recorded as harassing Zhou territory, but at the time the Zhou were expanding northwards, encroaching on their traditional lands, especially into the <a href="Wei_River" title="Wei River">Wei River valley</a>. Archaeologically, the Zhou expanded to the north and the northwest at the expense of the <a href="Siwa_culture" title="Siwa culture">Siwa culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WT-41">[41]</a> The Quanrong put an end to the Western Zhou in 771 BC, sacking the Zhou capital of <a href="Haojing" title="Haojing">Haojing</a> and killing the last Western Zhou king <a href="King_You_of_Zhou" title="King You of Zhou">You</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WT-41">[41]</a> Thereafter the task of dealing with the northern tribes was left to their vassal, the <a href="Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WT-41">[41]</a>

To the west, the <a href="Pazyryk_culture" title="Pazyryk culture">Pazyryk culture</a> (6th–3rd century BC) immediately preceded the formation of the Xiongnus.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> A <a href="Scythian_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian cultures">Scythian</a> culture,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> it was identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans, such as the <a href="Siberian_Ice_Maiden" title="Siberian Ice Maiden">Siberian Ice Maiden</a>, found in the <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberian</a> <a href="Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>, in the <a href="Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a>, <a href="Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> and nearby <a href="Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> To the south, the <a href="Ordos_culture" title="Ordos culture">Ordos culture</a> had developed in the <a href="Ordos_Loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordos Loop">Ordos Loop</a> (modern <a href="Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="China" title="China">China</a>) during the <a href="Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze</a> and early <a href="Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> from the 6th to 2nd centuries BC. Of unknown ethno-linguistic origin, it is thought to represent the easternmost extension of Indo-European-speakers.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harmatta348-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The <a href="Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a> were displaced by the Xiongnu expansion in the 2nd century BC, and had to migrate to Central and Southern Asia.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:303px;overflow:hidden"></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:107px;overflow:hidden"></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">A nomad horseman spearing a boar, discovered in <a href="Saksanokhur" title="Saksanokhur">Saksanokhur</a>, <a href="Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">South Tajikistan</a>, 1st–2nd century AD.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> According to <a href="Henri-Paul_Francfort" title="Henri-Paul Francfort">Francfort</a>, <a href="Saksanokhur_gold_buckle" title="Saksanokhur gold buckle">this decorative belt buckle</a> may have been made for a patron related to the Xiongnu, and may be dated to the 2nd-1st century BC. The rider wears the steppe dress, his hair is tied into a hairbun characteristic of the oriental steppes, and his horse has characteristically Xiongnu <a href="Horse_trappings" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse trappings">horse trappings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HPF-52">[52]</a></div></div></div></div>

<a href="Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> historian <a href="Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> composed an early yet detailed exposition on the Xiongnu in one liezhuan (arrayed account) of his <a href="Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a> (c. 100 BC), wherein the Xiongnu were alleged to be descendants of a certain <a href="Chunwei" title="Chunwei">Chunwei</a>, who in turn descended from the "lineage of Lord Xia", a.k.a. <a href="Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Even so, Sima Qian also drew a distinct line between the settled <a href="Huaxia" title="Huaxia">Huaxia</a> people (Han) to the pastoral nomads (Xiongnu), characterizing them as two polar groups in the sense of a civilization versus an uncivilized society: the <a href="Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo20022-55">[55]</a> Sima Qian also mentioned Xiongnu's early appearance north of <a href="Yanmen_Commandery" title="Yanmen Commandery">Wild Goose Gate</a> and <a href="Dai_Commandery" title="Dai Commandery">Dai</a> commanderies before 265 BC, just before the <a href="Zhao-Xiongnu_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhao-Xiongnu War">Zhao-Xiongnu War</a>;<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> however, <a href="Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">sinologist</a> <a href="Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Edwin Pulleyblank</a> (1994) contends that pre-241-BC references to the Xiongnu are anachronistic substitutions for the <a href="Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Hu people</a> instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014264-59">[59]</a> Sometimes the Xiongnu were distinguished from other nomadic peoples; namely, the <a href="Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Hu people</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker200227–28-60">[60]</a> yet on other occasions, Chinese sources often just classified the Xiongnu as a <a href="Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Hu people</a>, which was a blanket term for <a href="Nomadic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic people">nomadic people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2002129-61">[61]</a> Even Sima Qian was inconsistent: in the chapter "Hereditary House of Zhao", he considered the Donghu to be the Hu proper,<a href="#cite_note-hu_proper-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-ZGC-63">[63]</a> yet elsewhere he considered Xiongnu to be also Hu.<a href="#cite_note-xiongnu_hu-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520-58">[58]</a>

Ancient China often came in contact with the <a href="Xianyun" title="Xianyun">Xianyun</a> and the <a href="Xirong" title="Xirong">Xirong</a> nomadic peoples. In later Chinese historiography, some groups of these peoples were believed to be the possible progenitors of the Xiongnu people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2002107-65">[65]</a> These nomadic people often had repeated military confrontations with the <a href="Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> and especially the <a href="Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a>, who often conquered and enslaved the nomads in an expansion drift.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2002107-65">[65]</a> During the <a href="Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, the armies from the <a href="Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a>, <a href="Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">Zhao</a> and <a href="Yan_(state)" title="Yan (state)">Yan</a> states were encroaching and conquering various nomadic territories that were inhabited by the Xiongnu and other Hu peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999892–893-66">[66]</a>

Pulleyblank argued that the Xiongnu were part of a <a href="Xirong" title="Xirong">Xirong</a> group called <a href="Yiqu" title="Yiqu">Yiqu</a>, who had lived in <a href="Shaanbei" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaanbei">Shaanbei</a> and had been influenced by China for centuries, before they were driven out by the <a href="Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994514–523-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank200020-68">[68]</a> <a href="Qin's_campaign_against_the_Xiongnu" title="Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu">Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu</a> expanded Qin's territory at the expense of the Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999892–893,_964-69">[69]</a> After the unification of Qin dynasty, Xiongnu was a threat to the northern border of Qin. They were likely to attack the Qin dynasty when they suffered natural disasters.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_formation">State formation</h3></div>

The first known Xiongnu leader was <a href="Touman" title="Touman">Touman</a>, who reigned between 220 and 209 BC. In 215 BC, Chinese Emperor <a href="Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a> sent General <a href="Meng_Tian" title="Meng Tian">Meng Tian</a> on a <a href="Qin's_campaign_against_the_Xiongnu" title="Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu">military campaign</a> against the Xiongnu. Meng Tian defeated the Xiongnu and expelled them from the <a href="Ordos_Plateau" title="Ordos Plateau">Ordos Loop</a>, forcing <a href="Touman" title="Touman">Touman</a> and the Xiongnu to flee north into the <a href="Mongolian_Plateau" title="Mongolian Plateau">Mongolian Plateau</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200971–73-71">[71]</a> In 210 BC, Meng Tian died, and in 209 BC, Touman's son <a href="Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modu</a> became the Xiongnu <a href="Chanyu" title="Chanyu">Chanyu</a>.

In order to protect the Xiongnu from the threat of the <a href="Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>, <a href="Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modu Chanyu</a> united the Xiongnu into a powerful <a href="Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999892–893,_964-69">[69]</a> This transformed the Xiongnu into a more formidable polity, able to form larger armies and exercise improved strategic coordination. The Qin dynasty fell in 207 BC, and was replaced by the <a href="Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han dynasty</a> in 202 BC after a period of <a href="Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">internal conflict</a>. This period of Chinese instability was a time of prosperity for the Xiongnu, who adopted many <a href="Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> agriculture techniques such as slaves for heavy labor and lived in Han-style homes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley199338-72">[72]</a>

After forging internal unity, <a href="Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modu Chanyu</a> expanded the Xiongnu empire in all directions. To the north he conquered a number of nomadic peoples, including the <a href="Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a> of southern Siberia. He crushed the power of the <a href="Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu people</a> of eastern Mongolia and Manchuria as well as the <a href="Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a> in the <a href="Hexi_Corridor" title="Hexi Corridor">Hexi Corridor</a> of <a href="Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, where his son, Jizhu, made a <a href="Skull_cup" title="Skull cup">skull cup</a> out of the Yuezhi king. Modu also retook the original homeland of Xiongnu on the <a href="Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>, which had previously been taken by the Qin general Meng Tian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999885–966-74">[74]</a> Under Modu's leadership, the Xiongnu became powerful enough to threaten the Han dynasty.

In 200 BC, Modu besieged the first Han dynasty emperor <a href="Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Gaozu</a> (Gao-Di) with his 320,000-strong army at Peteng Fortress in Baideng (present-day Datong, Shanxi).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley199336-75">[75]</a> After Gaozu (Gao-Di) agreed to all Modu's terms, such as ceding the northern provinces to the Xiongnu and paying annual taxes, he was allowed to leave the siege. Although Gaozu was able to return to his capital Chang'an (present-day <a href="Xi'an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>), Modu occasionally threatened the Han's northern frontier and finally in 198 BC, a peace treaty was settled.

Xiongnu in their expansion drove their western neighbour Yuezhi from the Hexi Corridor in year 176 BC, killing the Yuezhi king and asserting their presence in the <a href="Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage19_19,_26–27]-13">[13]</a>

By the time of Modu's death in 174 BC, the Xiongnu were recognized as the most prominent of the nomads bordering the Han empire<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley199336-75">[75]</a> According to the <a href="Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a>, later quoted in <a href="Duan_Chengshi" title="Duan Chengshi">Duan Chengshi</a>'s ninth-century <a href="Miscellaneous_Morsels_from_Youyang" title="Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang">Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang</a>:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Also, according to the Han shu, Wang Wu (王烏) and others were sent as envoys to pay a visit to the Xiongnu. According to the customs of the Xiongnu, if the Han envoys did not remove their tallies of authority, and if they did not allow their faces to be tattooed, they could not gain entrance into the yurts. Wang Wu and his company removed their tallies, submitted to tattoo, and thus gained entry. The <a href="Chanyu" title="Chanyu">Shanyu</a> looked upon them very highly.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xiongnu_hierarchy">Xiongnu hierarchy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Chanyu" title="Chanyu">Chanyu</a></div>

The ruler of the Xiongnu was called the <a href="Chanyu" title="Chanyu">chanyu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bar81-48-79">[79]</a> Under him were the <a href="Tuqi_King" title="Tuqi King">tuqi kings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bar81-48-79">[79]</a> The Tuqi King of the Left was normally the heir presumptive.<a href="#cite_note-bar81-48-79">[79]</a> Below him in the hierarchy were more officials in pairs of left and right: the guli, the army commanders, the great governors, the danghu and the gudu. Beneath them were the commanders of detachments of one thousand, of one hundred, and of ten men. This nation of nomads, was organized like an army.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-80">[80]</a>

After Modu, later leaders formed a dualistic system of political organisation with the left and right branches of the Xiongnu divided on a regional basis. The chanyu or shanyu, a ruler equivalent to the <a href="Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a>, exercised direct authority over the central territory. Longcheng (around the <a href="Khangai_Mountains" title="Khangai Mountains">Khangai Mountains</a>, <a href="Otuken" class="mw-redirect" title="Otuken">Otuken</a>)<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> (<a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 龍城; <a href="Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: Luut; lit. "Dragon City") became the annual meeting place and served as the Xiongnu capital.<a href="#cite_note-yuuu86-384-5">[5]</a> The ruins of Longcheng were found south of <a href="%C3%96lziit%2C_Arkhangai" title="Ölziit, Arkhangai">Ulziit</a> District, <a href="Arkhangai_Province" title="Arkhangai Province">Arkhangai Province</a> in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>

North of <a href="Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> with the Tuqi King of the Left was holding the area north of Beijing and the Tuqi King of the Right was holding the <a href="Ordos_Loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordos Loop">Ordos Loop</a> area as far as <a href="Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYap2009liii-84">[84]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage_diplomacy_with_Han_dynasty">Marriage diplomacy with Han dynasty</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Heqin" title="Heqin">Heqin</a></div>

In the winter of 200 BC, following a Xiongnu <a href="Siege" title="Siege">siege</a> of <a href="Taiyuan" title="Taiyuan">Taiyuan</a>, <a href="Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Emperor Gaozu of Han</a> personally led a military campaign against <a href="Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modu Chanyu</a>. At the <a href="Battle_of_Baideng" title="Battle of Baideng">Battle of Baideng</a>, he was ambushed, reputedly by Xiongnu cavalry. The emperor was cut off from supplies and reinforcements for seven days, only narrowly escaping capture.

The Han dynasty sent commoner women falsely labeled as "princesses" and members of the Han imperial family to the Xiongnu multiple times when they were practicing <a href="Heqin" title="Heqin">Heqin</a> (<a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 和親; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'harmonious kinship') marriage alliances with the Xiongnu in order to avoid sending the emperor's daughters.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The Han sent these "princesses" to marry Xiongnu leaders in their efforts to stop the border raids. Along with arranged marriages, the Han sent gifts to bribe the Xiongnu to stop attacking.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley199336-75">[75]</a> After the defeat at <a href="Datong" title="Datong">Pingcheng</a> in 200 BC, the Han emperor abandoned a military solution to the Xiongnu threat. Instead, in 198 BC, the courtier Liu Jing was dispatched for negotiations. The peace settlement eventually reached between the parties included a Han princess given in marriage to the chanyu; periodic gifts to the Xiongnu of <a href="Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, <a href="Distilled_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled beverage">distilled beverages</a> and <a href="Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>; equal status between the states; and a <a href="Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">boundary wall</a> as a mutual border.

This first treaty set the pattern for relations between the <a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> and the Xiongnu for sixty years. Up to 135 BC, the treaty was renewed nine times, each time with an increase in the "gifts" to the Xiongnu Empire. In 192 BC, <a href="Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modun</a> even asked for the hand of <a href="Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Emperor Gaozu of Han</a> widow <a href="Empress_L%C3%BC_Zhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress Lü Zhi">Empress Lü Zhi</a>. His son and successor, the energetic Jiyu, known as <a href="Laoshang_Chanyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Laoshang Chanyu">Laoshang Chanyu</a>, continued his father's expansionist policies. Laoshang succeeded in negotiating terms with <a href="Emperor_Wen_of_Han" title="Emperor Wen of Han">Emperor Wen</a> for the maintenance of a large scale government sponsored market system.

While the Xiongnu benefited handsomely, from the Chinese perspective marriage treaties were costly, very humiliating and ineffective. Laoshang Chanyu showed that he did not take the peace treaty seriously. On one occasion his scouts penetrated to a point near <a href="Chang'an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>. In 166 BC he personally led 140,000 cavalry to invade <a href="Anding_Commandery" title="Anding Commandery">Anding</a>, reaching as far as the imperial retreat at Yong. In 158 BC, his successor sent 30,000 cavalry to attack <a href="Shangdang" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangdang">Shangdang</a> and another 30,000 to <a href="Yunzhong_Commandery" title="Yunzhong Commandery">Yunzhong</a>.

The Xiongnu also <a href="Heqin#Xiongnu" title="Heqin">practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials</a> who defected to their side by marrying off sisters and daughters of the <a href="Chanyu" title="Chanyu">Chanyu</a> to Han Chinese who joined the Xiongnu and Xiongnu in Han service. The daughter of Laoshang Chanyu (and older sister of <a href="Junchen" title="Junchen">Junchen</a> Chanyu and <a href="Yizhixie" title="Yizhixie">Yizhixie</a> Chanyu) was married to the Xiongnu General <a href="Zhao_Xin_(general)" title="Zhao Xin (general)">Zhao Xin</a>, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of <a href="Qiedihou" title="Qiedihou">Qiedihou</a> Chanyu was married to the <a href="Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> General <a href="Li_Ling" title="Li Ling">Li Ling</a> after he surrendered and defected.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-SimaWatson1993-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wakeman1985-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was <a href="Li_Guangli" title="Li Guangli">Li Guangli</a>, a general in the <a href="War_of_the_Heavenly_Horses" title="War of the Heavenly Horses">War of the Heavenly Horses</a>, who also married a daughter of the <a href="Hulugu" title="Hulugu">Hulugu</a> Chanyu.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The Han Chinese diplomat <a href="Su_Wu" title="Su Wu">Su Wu</a> married a Xiongnu woman given by Li Ling when he was arrested and taken captive.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Han Chinese explorer <a href="Zhang_Qian" title="Zhang Qian">Zhang Qian</a> married a Xiongnu woman and had a child with her when he was taken captive by the Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-James_A._Millward_2007_20-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yiping_Zhang_2005_22-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Charles_Higham_2004_409-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mayor2014-108">[108]</a>

The <a href="Khagan" title="Khagan">khagans</a> of the <a href="Yenisei_Kyrgyz_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate">Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate</a> claimed descent from the Chinese general <a href="Li_Ling" title="Li Ling">Li Ling</a>, grandson of the <a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> general <a href="Li_Guang" title="Li Guang">Li Guang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kyzlasov-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Li Ling was captured by the Xiongnu and defected in the first century BC.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> And since the Tang royal Li family also claimed descent from Li Guang, the Kirghiz Khagan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang Imperial family. This relationship soothed the relationship when Kyrgyz khagan Are (阿熱) invaded <a href="Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a> and executed Qasar Qaghan. The news brought to <a href="Chang'an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> by Kyrgyz ambassador Zhuwu Hesu (註吾合素).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Han–Xiongnu_war">Han–Xiongnu war</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Han–Xiongnu War">Han–Xiongnu War</a></div>

The <a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> made preparations for war when the <a href="Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Han Emperor Wu</a> dispatched the Han Chinese explorer <a href="Zhang_Qian" title="Zhang Qian">Zhang Qian</a> to explore the mysterious kingdoms to the west and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. During this time Zhang married a Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.<a href="#cite_note-James_A._Millward_2007_20-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yiping_Zhang_2005_22-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Charles_Higham_2004_409-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mayor2014-108">[108]</a> While Zhang Qian did not succeed in this mission,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage34_34]-118">[118]</a> his reports of the west provided even greater incentive to counter the Xiongnu hold on westward routes out of the Han Empire, and the Han prepared to mount a large scale attack using the <a href="Northern_Silk_Road" title="Northern Silk Road">Northern Silk Road</a> to move men and material.

While the Han dynasty had been making preparations for a military confrontation since the reign of <a href="Emperor_Wen_of_Han" title="Emperor Wen of Han">Emperor Wen</a>, the break did not come until 133 BC, following <a href="Battle_of_Mayi" title="Battle of Mayi">an abortive trap to ambush the Chanyu at Mayi</a>. By that point the empire was consolidated politically, militarily and economically, and was led by an adventurous pro-war faction at court. In that year, <a href="Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu</a> reversed the decision he had made the year before to renew the peace treaty.

Full-scale war broke out in late 129 BC, when 40,000 Han <a href="Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> made a surprise attack on the Xiongnu at the border markets. In 127 BC, the Han general <a href="Wei_Qing" title="Wei Qing">Wei Qing</a> retook the Ordos. In 121 BC, the Xiongnu suffered another setback when <a href="Huo_Qubing" title="Huo Qubing">Huo Qubing</a> led a force of light cavalry westward out of Longxi and within six days fought his way through five Xiongnu kingdoms. The Xiongnu Hunye king was forced to surrender with 40,000 men. In 119 BC both Huo and Wei, each leading 50,000 cavalrymen and 100,000 footsoldiers (in order to keep up with the mobility of the Xiongnu, many of the non-cavalry Han soldiers were mobile infantrymen who traveled on horseback but fought on foot), and advancing along different routes, forced the Chanyu and his Xiongnu court to flee north of the <a href="Gobi_Desert" title="Gobi Desert">Gobi Desert</a>.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(December_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1974[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_December_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(December_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-119">[119]</a>

Major logistical difficulties limited the duration and long-term continuation of these campaigns. According to the analysis of Yan You (嚴尤), the difficulties were twofold. Firstly there was the problem of supplying food across long distances. Secondly, the weather in the northern Xiongnu lands was difficult for Han soldiers, who could never carry enough fuel.<a href="#cite_note-124">[a]</a> According to official reports, the Xiongnu lost 80,000 to 90,000 men, and out of the 140,000 horses the Han forces had brought into the desert, fewer than 30,000 returned to the Han Empire.

In 104 and 102 BC, the Han fought and won the <a href="War_of_the_Heavenly_Horses" title="War of the Heavenly Horses">War of the Heavenly Horses</a> against the Kingdom of <a href="Dayuan" title="Dayuan">Dayuan</a>. As a result, the Han gained many <a href="Ferghana_horse" title="Ferghana horse">Ferghana horses</a> which further aided them in their battle against the Xiongnu. As a result of these battles, the Han Empire controlled the strategic region from the <a href="Ordos_Desert" title="Ordos Desert">Ordos</a> and Gansu corridor to <a href="Lop_Nor" class="mw-redirect" title="Lop Nor">Lop Nor</a>. They succeeded in separating the Xiongnu from the <a href="Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang peoples</a> to the south, and also gained direct access to the <a href="Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a>. Because of strong Han control over the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu became unstable and were no longer a threat to the Han Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley199337-125">[124]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xiongnu_Civil_War_(60–53_BC)">Xiongnu Civil War (60–53 BC)</h3></div>

When a chanyu died, power could pass to his younger brother if his son was not of age. This system normally kept an adult male on the throne, but could cause trouble in later generations when there were several lineages that might claim the throne. When <a href="Xul%C3%BCquanqu" title="Xulüquanqu">Xulüquanqu</a> Chanyu died in 60 BC, power was taken by <a href="Woyanqudi" title="Woyanqudi">Woyanqudi</a>, a grandson of Xulüquanqu's cousin. Being something of a usurper, he tried to put his own men in power, which only increased his number of his enemies. Xulüquanqu's son fled east and, in 58 BC, revolted. Few would support Woyanqudi and he was driven to suicide, leaving the rebel son, <a href="Huhanye" title="Huhanye">Huhanye</a>, as the chanyu. The Woyanqudi faction then set up his brother, Tuqi, as chanyu in 58 BC. In 57 BC three more men declared themselves Chanyu. Two dropped their claims in favor of the third who was defeated by Tuqi in that year and surrendered to Huhanye the following year. In 56 BC Tuqi was defeated by Huhanye and committed suicide, but two more claimants appeared: Runzhen and Huhanye's elder brother <a href="Zhizhi" title="Zhizhi">Zhizhi</a> Chanyu. Runzhen was killed by Zhizhi in 54 BC, leaving only Zhizhi and Huhanye. Zhizhi grew in power, and, in 53 BC, Huhanye moved south and submitted to the Chinese. Huhanye used Chinese support to weaken Zhizhi, who gradually moved west. In 49 BC, a brother to Tuqi set himself up as Chanyu and was killed by Zhizhi. In 36 BC, Zhizhi was killed by a Chinese army while trying to establish a new kingdom in the far west near <a href="Lake_Balkhash" title="Lake Balkhash">Lake Balkhash</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tributary_relations_with_the_Han">Tributary relations with the Han</h3></div>

In 53 BC <a href="Huhanye" title="Huhanye">Huhanye</a> decided to enter into tributary relations with <a href="Han_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Han China">Han China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage37_37–38]-128">[126]</a> The original terms insisted on by the Han court were that, first, the Chanyu or his representatives should come to the capital to pay homage; secondly, the Chanyu should send a hostage prince; and thirdly, the Chanyu should present tribute to the Han emperor. The political status of the Xiongnu in the Chinese world order was reduced from that of a "brotherly state" to that of an "outer vassal" (外臣).

Huhanye sent his son, the "wise king of the right" Shuloujutang, to the Han court as hostage. In 51 BC he personally visited Chang'an to pay homage to the emperor on the <a href="Chinese_New_Year" title="Chinese New Year">Lunar New Year</a>. In the same year, another envoy Qijushan was received at the <a href="Ganquan_Palace" title="Ganquan Palace">Ganquan Palace</a> in the north-west of modern <a href="Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankTêng1941-130">[128]</a> On the financial side, Huhanye was amply rewarded in large quantities of gold, cash, clothes, silk, horses and grain for his participation. Huhanye made two further homage trips, in 49 BC and 33 BC; with each one the imperial gifts were increased. On the last trip, Huhanye took the opportunity to ask to be allowed to become an imperial son-in-law. As a sign of the decline in the political status of the Xiongnu, <a href="Emperor_Yuan_of_Han" title="Emperor Yuan of Han">Emperor Yuan</a> refused, giving him instead five ladies-in-waiting. One of them was <a href="Wang_Zhaojun" title="Wang Zhaojun">Wang Zhaojun</a>, famed in Chinese folklore as one of the <a href="Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a>.

When Zhizhi learned of his brother's submission, he also sent a son to the Han court as hostage in 53 BC. Then twice –in 51 BC and 50 BC– he sent envoys to the Han court with tribute. But having failed to pay homage personally, he was never admitted to the tributary system. In 36 BC, a junior officer named <a href="Chen_Tang_(general)" title="Chen Tang (general)">Chen Tang</a>, with the help of Gan Yanshou, protector-general of the Western Regions, assembled an expeditionary force that defeated him at the <a href="Battle_of_Zhizhi" title="Battle of Zhizhi">Battle of Zhizhi</a> and sent his head as a trophy to Chang'an.

Tributary relations were discontinued during the reign of Huduershi (18–48 AD), corresponding to the political upheavals of the <a href="Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin dynasty</a>. The Xiongnu took the opportunity to regain control of the western regions, as well as neighboring peoples such as the <a href="Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a>. In 24 AD, Hudershi even talked about reversing the tributary system.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Xiongnu_and_Northern_Xiongnu">Southern Xiongnu and Northern Xiongnu</h3></div>

The Xiongnu's new power was met with a policy of appeasement by <a href="Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han" title="Emperor Guangwu of Han">Emperor Guangwu</a>. At the height of his power, Huduershi even compared himself to his illustrious ancestor, Modu. Due to growing regionalism among the Xiongnu, however, Huduershi was never able to establish unquestioned authority. In contravention of a principle of <a href="Fraternal_succession" class="mw-redirect" title="Fraternal succession">fraternal succession</a> established by Huhanye, Huduershi designated his son Punu as <a href="Heir-apparent" class="mw-redirect" title="Heir-apparent">heir-apparent</a>. However, as the eldest son of the preceding chanyu, Bi (Pi)—the Rizhu King of the Right—had a more legitimate claim. Consequently, Bi refused to attend the annual meeting at the chanyu's court. Nevertheless, in 46 AD, Punu ascended the throne.

In 48 AD, a confederation of eight Xiongnu tribes in Bi's power base in the south, with a military force totalling 40,000 to 50,000 men, seceded from Punu's kingdom and acclaimed Bi as chanyu. This kingdom became known as the Southern Xiongnu.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_Xiongnu">Northern Xiongnu</h4></div>

The rump kingdom under Punu, around the <a href="Orkhon_Valley" title="Orkhon Valley">Orkhon</a> (modern north central Mongolia) became known as the Northern Xiongnu, with Punu, becoming known as the <a href="Northern_Chanyu" title="Northern Chanyu">Northern Chanyu</a>. In 49 AD, the Northern Xiongnu was dealt a heavy defeat to the Southern Xiongnu. That same year, Zhai Tong, a Han governor of <a href="Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong</a> also enticed the <a href="Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a> and <a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> into attacking the Northern Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage39_39]-132">[130]</a> Soon, Punu began sending envoys on several separate occasions to negotiate peace with the Han dynasty, but made little to no progress.

In the 60s, the Northern Xiongnu resumed hostilities as they attempted to expand their influence into the <a href="Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a> and launched raids on the Han borders. In 73, the Han responded by sending <a href="Dou_Gu" title="Dou Gu">Dou Gu</a> and Geng Chong to lead a <a href="Battle_of_Yiwulu" title="Battle of Yiwulu">great expedition</a> against the Northern Xiongnu in the <a href="Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>. The expedition, which saw the exploits of the famed general, <a href="Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a>, was initially successful, but the Han had to temporarily withdraw in 75 due to matters back home. Ban Chao remained behind and maintained Chinese influence over the Western Regions before his death in 102.<a href="#cite_note-:0-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage42_42–47]-134">[132]</a>

For the next decade, the Northern Xiongnu had to endure famines largely due to locust plagues. In 87, they suffered a major defeat to the Xianbei, who killed their chanyu <a href="Youliu" title="Youliu">Youliu</a> and took his skin as a trophy. With the Northern Xiongnu in disarray, the Han general, <a href="Dou_Xian" title="Dou Xian">Dou Xian</a> launched an expedition and crushed them at the <a href="Battle_of_the_Altai_Mountains" title="Battle of the Altai Mountains">Battle of the Altai Mountains</a> in 89. After another Han attack in 91, the <a href="Northern_Chanyu" title="Northern Chanyu">Northern Chanyu</a> fled with his followers to the northwest, and was not seen again, while those that remained behind surrendered to the Han.<a href="#cite_note-:0-133">[131]</a>

In 94, dissatisfied with the newly appointed chanyu, the surrendered Northern Xiongnu rebelled and acclaimed Fenghou as their chanyu, who led them to flee outside the border. However, the separatist regime continued to face famines and the growing threat of the Xianbei, prompting 10,000 of them to return to Han in 96. Fenghou later sent envoys to Han intending to submit as a vassal but was rejected. The Northern Xiongnu were scattered, with most of them being absorbed by the Xianbei. In 118, a defeated Fenghou brought around 100 followers to surrender to Han.<a href="#cite_note-:0-133">[131]</a>

Remnants of the Northern Xiongnu held out in the Tarim Basin as they allied themselves with the <a href="Jushi_Kingdom" title="Jushi Kingdom">Nearer Jushi Kingdom</a> and captured <a href="Hami" title="Hami">Yiwu</a> in 119. By 126, they were subjugated by the Han general, <a href="Ban_Yong" title="Ban Yong">Ban Yong</a>, while a branch led by a "Huyan King" continued to resist. The Huyan King was last mentioned in 151 when he launched an attack on Yiwu but was driven away by Han forces. According to the fifth-century <a href="Book_of_Wei" title="Book of Wei">Book of Wei</a>, the remnants of Northern Chanyu's tribe settled as <a href="Yueban" title="Yueban">Yueban</a>, near <a href="Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> and subjugated the <a href="Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>; while the rest fled across the <a href="Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a> towards <a href="Kangju" title="Kangju">Kangju</a> in <a href="Transoxania" class="mw-redirect" title="Transoxania">Transoxania</a>. It states that this group later became the <a href="Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southern_Xiongnu">Southern Xiongnu</h4></div>

Coincidentally, the Southern Xiongnu were plagued by natural disasters and misfortunes—in addition to the threat posed by Punu. Consequently, in 50 AD, the Southern Xiongnu submitted to tributary relations with Han China. The system of tribute was considerably tightened by the Han, to keep the Southern Xiongnu under control. The Chanyu was ordered to establish his court in the Meiji district of <a href="Xihe_Commandery" title="Xihe Commandery">Xihe Commandery</a> and the Southern Xiongnu were resettled in eight frontier commanderies. At the same time, large numbers of Chinese were also resettled in these commanderies, in mixed Han-Xiongnu settlements. Economically, the Southern Xiongnu became reliant on trade with the Han and annual subsidies from the Chinese court.

The Southern Xiongnu served as Han auxiliaries to defend the northern borders from nomadic forces and even played a role in defeating the Northern Xiongnu. However, with the fall of their northern counterpart, the Southern Xiongnu continued to suffer the brunt of raids, this time by the <a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> people of the steppe. In addition to the poor climate and living conditions of the frontiers, the Chinese court would also interfere in the Southern Xiongnu's politics and install chanyus loyal to the Han. As a result, the Southern Xiongnu often rebelled, at times joining forces with the <a href="Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a> and receiving support from the Xianbei.

During the late 2nd century AD, the Chanyu began sending his people to deal with the Han's internal matters; first against the <a href="Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> and then another rebellion in <a href="Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> in 188. Many of the Xiongnu feared that it would set a precedent for unending military service to the Han court. At the time, another Han vassal, the <a href="Chuge" title="Chuge">Xiuchuge</a> people had revolted in <a href="Bingzhou" title="Bingzhou">Bingzhou</a> and killed the provincial inspector. Subsequently, a rebellious faction among the Southern Xiongnu allied with the Xiuchuge and killed the Chanyu as well. The Han court appointed his son, <a href="Yufuluo" class="mw-redirect" title="Yufuluo">Yufuluo</a>, entitled Chizhi Shizhu (持至尸逐侯), to succeed him, but he was expelled from his territory by the rebels.

Yufuluo travelled to <a href="Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> to seek aid from the Han court, but the court was in disorder from the clash between Grand General <a href="He_Jin" title="He Jin">He Jin</a> and the <a href="Ten_Attendants" title="Ten Attendants">eunuchs</a>, and the intervention of the warlord <a href="Dong_Zhuo" title="Dong Zhuo">Dong Zhuo</a>. The Chanyu subsequently settled down with his followers around <a href="Linfen" title="Linfen">Pingyang</a>, east of the <a href="Fen_River" title="Fen River">Fen River</a> in <a href="Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>. In 195, he died and was succeeded as chanyu by his brother <a href="Huchuquan" title="Huchuquan">Huchuquan</a>. Meanwhile, the rebels initially elected their own chanyu, but after he died just a year into his reign, they left the position vacant and had an elderly nominal king put in his place. With the Southern Xiongnu in disarray, many of the tribes opted to distance themselves from the ongoing <a href="End_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="End of the Han dynasty">Han civil war</a>. Yufuluo's group and the Xiuchuge were drawn into the conflict from time to time before they were all subdued by the warlord <a href="Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-133">[131]</a>

The Southern Xiongnu upheaval caused several frontier commanderies such as <a href="Shuofang_Commandery" title="Shuofang Commandery">Shuofang</a> and <a href="Yunzhong_Commandery" title="Yunzhong Commandery">Yunzhong</a> to be lost to hostile tribes, prompting Cao Cao to abolish and abandon them. In 216, he detained Huchuquan in the city of <a href="Ye_(Hebei)" title="Ye (Hebei)">Ye</a> and reorganized the last vestiges of the Southern Xiongnu into the Five Divisions (Left, Right, South, North and Centre) around <a href="Taiyuan_Commandery" title="Taiyuan Commandery">Taiyuan Commandery</a> in modern-day <a href="Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, bringing them closer to the Chinese court's influence. The office of chanyu remained with Huchuquan at Ye until his death, after which it became vacant, while the Five Divisions were placed under the supervision of his uncle, <a href="Qubei" title="Qubei">Qubei</a>. Each division was led by a local chief, who in turn was under the surveillance of a Chinese resident. This was aimed at preventing the tribes in Shanxi from engaging in rebellion, and also allowed Cao Cao to use them as auxiliaries in his cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage54_54]-138">[136]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descendants_and_later_states_in_northern_China">Descendants and later states in northern China</h3></div>

<a href="Fang_Xuanling" title="Fang Xuanling">Fang Xuanling</a>'s <a href="Book_of_Jin" title="Book of Jin">Book of Jin</a> lists nineteen Xiongnu tribes that resettled within the Great Wall: <a href="Chuge" title="Chuge">Chuge</a> (屠各), <a href="Xianzhi" title="Xianzhi">Xianzhi</a> (鮮支), Koutou (寇頭), Wutan (烏譚), <a href="Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Chile</a> (赤勒), Hanzhi (捍蛭), Heilang (黑狼), <a href="Chisha" title="Chisha">Chisha</a> (赤沙), Yugang (鬱鞞), Weisuo (萎莎), Tutong (禿童), Bomie (勃蔑), Qiangqu (羌渠), <a href="Alat_tribe" title="Alat tribe">Helai</a> (賀賴), Zhongqin (鐘跂), Dalou (大樓), Yongqu (雍屈), Zhenshu (真樹) and Lijie (力羯). Among the nineteen tribes, the Chuge, also known as the Xiuchuge, were the most honored and prestigious.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a>

With the fall of the Southern Xiongnu state, the Xiongnu name gradually lost its unifying influence among its descendants, only ever invoked for political and symbolic purposes or as a generic label for tribes that did not belong to one of the major ethnic groups at the time. In <a href="Bingzhou" title="Bingzhou">Bingzhou</a>, the Chuge identity held more weight than that of the Xiongnu among the Five Divisions, while those excluded from the group mingled with tribes from various ethnicities and were referred to as "<a href="Hu_(people)" title="Hu (people)">hu</a>" or other vague terms for the non-Chinese. Many of them began adopting Chinese family names such as Liu, which was prevalent among the Five Divisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_一_屠各〉-140">[138]</a>

Nonetheless, the Xiongnu are classified as one of the "<a href="Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Five Barbarians</a>" of the <a href="Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> period. The <a href="Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a> and <a href="Helian_Xia" class="mw-redirect" title="Helian Xia">Helian Xia</a> dynasties were both founded by rulers on the basis of their Xiongnu ancestry. The <a href="Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a>, established by the <a href="Lushuihu" title="Lushuihu">Lushuihu</a>, is sometimes categorized as a Xiongnu state in recent historiographies. <a href="Shi_Le" title="Shi Le">Shi Le</a>, the founder of the <a href="Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao</a> dynasty, was a descendant of the Xiongnu Qiangqu tribe, although by his time, he and his people had become a separate ethnic group known as the <a href="Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Han-Zhao_dynasty_(304–329)">Han-Zhao dynasty (304–329)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a> and <a href="Chuge" title="Chuge">Chuge</a></div>

Eventually, the Five Divisions grew weary of subservience and attempted to assert their own power. The Commander of the Left Division, <a href="Liu_Bao" title="Liu Bao">Liu Bao</a> briefly unified them during the mid-3rd century before the <a href="Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a> and the <a href="Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a> courts intervened and forced them back into five. To further ensure their loyalty, nobles of the Five Divisions had to send their children to the Chinese capital as hostages, where they became accustomed to Chinese <a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> teachings and culture. They were even allowed to hold government offices under the Jin, but their status remained low compared to their Chinese peers. Amidst the <a href="War_of_the_Eight_Princes" title="War of the Eight Princes">War of the Eight Princes</a> in 304, as Jin authority was collapsing in northern China, the Five Divisions took the opportunity to rebel.

<a href="Liu_Yuan_(Han-Zhao)" title="Liu Yuan (Han-Zhao)">Liu Yuan</a>, the son of Liu Bao and a general serving under one of the Jin princes, was offered by the Five Divisions to lead their rebellion. After deceiving his prince, Liu Yuan returned to Bingzhou and was acclaimed as the Grand Chanyu. Later that year, he declared himself the King of Han. Liu Yuan and his family members were Chuge people, but he also claimed to be a direct descendant of the Southern Xiongnu chanyus and depicted his state as a continuation of the <a href="Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, citing that his alleged ancestors were married to Han princesses through <a href="Heqin" title="Heqin">heqin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_一_屠各〉-140">[138]</a> He adopted the Chinese ruling system and allowed the Han Chinese and non-Chinese tribes to serve under him. In 308, he elevated his title to Emperor of Han, and in 309, he settled his capital at <a href="Linfen" title="Linfen">Pingyang</a>.

The Western Jin, devastated by war and natural disasters, was unable to stop the growing threat of the Han. A few months after <a href="Liu_Cong_(Han-Zhao)" title="Liu Cong (Han-Zhao)">Liu Cong</a> took the Han throne, the Jin imperial army was annihilated by his forces in 311. Soon, the Han descended upon the Jin capital <a href="Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, sacking the city and capturing <a href="Emperor_Huai_of_Jin" title="Emperor Huai of Jin">Emperor Huai of Jin</a> in an event known as the <a href="Disaster_of_Yongjia" title="Disaster of Yongjia">Disaster of Yongjia</a>. In 316, the Jin restoration in <a href="Chang'an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>, headed by <a href="Emperor_Min_of_Jin" title="Emperor Min of Jin">Emperor Min</a>, was also crushed by the Han. After the fall of Chang'an, the remnants of the Jin south of the <a href="Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze river</a> at <a href="Jiankang" title="Jiankang">Jiankang</a> re-established themselves as the <a href="Eastern_Jin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Jin dynasty">Eastern Jin dynasty</a> in 318.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage56_56–57]-141">[139]</a>

Despite military success, the Han's imperial authority was limited. They suffered from internal strife under Liu Cong, who was described as a cruel and dissolute ruler. Faced with stern opposition from his own ministers, he greatly empowered his <a href="Consort_kin" title="Consort kin">consort kins</a> and <a href="Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">eunuchs</a> to counter them, throwing the Han court into a power struggle which ended in a brutal purge. Liu Cong also failed to constrain <a href="Shi_Le" title="Shi Le">Shi Le</a>, a general of <a href="Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a> ethnicity who effectively held the eastern parts of the empire. After Liu Cong's death in 318, the consort kin, <a href="Jin_Zhun" title="Jin Zhun">Jin Zhun</a> massacred the imperial family in Pingyang before he was defeated by a combined force led by Liu Cong's cousin, <a href="Liu_Yao" title="Liu Yao">Liu Yao</a>, and Shi Le.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Former_Zhao_(319–329)">Former Zhao (319–329)</h5></div>

During Jin Zhun's rebellion, the Han loyalists that escaped the massacre acclaimed <a href="Liu_Yao" title="Liu Yao">Liu Yao</a> as the new emperor. In 319, he moved the capital from Pingyang to his base in Chang'an and renamed the dynasty as Zhao. Unlike his predecessors, Liu Yao appealed more to his Xiongnu ancestry by honouring <a href="Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modu Chanyu</a> and distancing himself from the state's initial positioning of Han restoration. However, this was not a break from Liu Yuan, as he continued to honor Liu Yuan and <a href="Liu_Cong_(Han-Zhao)" title="Liu Cong (Han-Zhao)">Liu Cong</a> posthumously; it is hence known to historians collectively as <a href="Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a>. That same year, Shi Le proclaimed independence and formed his own state of Zhao, challenging Liu Yao for hegemony over northern China. For this reason, Han-Zhao is also known to historians as the Former Zhao to distinguish it from Shi Le's <a href="Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao</a>.

Liu Yao retained control over the <a href="Guanzhong" title="Guanzhong">Guanzhong</a> region and expanded his domain westward by campaigning against remnants of the Jin, <a href="Former_Liang" title="Former Liang">Former Liang</a> and <a href="Chouchi" title="Chouchi">Chouchi</a>. Eventually, Liu Yao led his army to fight Later Zhao for control over <a href="Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> but was captured by Shi Le's forces in battle and executed in 329. Chang'an soon fell to Later Zhao and the last of Former Zhao's forces were destroyed. Thus ended the Han-Zhao dynasty; northern China would be dominated by the Later Zhao for the next 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage57_57–58]-142">[140]</a> The Chuge people would remain a prominent ethnic group in northern China for the next two centuries.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tiefu_tribe_and_Helian_Xia_dynasty_(309–431)">Tiefu tribe and Helian Xia dynasty (309–431)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)</a></div>

The chieftains of the <a href="Tiefu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiefu">Tiefu</a> tribe were descendants of <a href="Qubei" title="Qubei">Qubei</a> and were related to another tribe, the <a href="Dugu_(surname)" title="Dugu (surname)">Dugu</a>. Based on their name, which meant a person whose father was a Xiongnu and mother was a <a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a>, the Tiefu had mingled with the Xianbei, and records refer to them as "<a href="Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a>", which by the 4th-century had become a generic term for miscellaneous <a href="Hu_(people)" title="Hu (people)">hu</a> tribes with <a href="Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu</a> elements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_四_乌丸〉-143">[141]</a> In 309, their chieftain, <a href="Liu_Hu_(Tiefu)" title="Liu Hu (Tiefu)">Liu Hu</a> rebelled against the Western Jin in Shanxi but was driven out to <a href="Shuofang_Commandery" title="Shuofang Commandery">Shuofang Commandery</a> in the <a href="Ordos_Loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordos Loop">Ordos Loop</a>. The Tiefu resided there for most of their existence, often as a vassal to their stronger neighbours before their power was destroyed by the <a href="Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a> dynasty in 392.

<a href="Liu_Bobo" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Bobo">Liu Bobo</a>, a surviving member of the Tiefu, went into exile and eventually offered his services to the <a href="Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a>-led <a href="Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin</a>. He was assigned to guard Shuofang, but in 407, angered by Qin holding peace talks with the Northern Wei, he rebelled and founded a state known as the <a href="Hu_Xia_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Hu Xia dynasty">Helian Xia dynasty</a>. Bobo strongly affirmed his Xiongnu lineage; his state name of "Xia" was based on the claim that the Xiongnu were descendants of the <a href="Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a>, and he later changed his family name from "Liu" (劉) to the more Xiongnu-like "Helian" (赫連), believing it inappropriate to follow his matrilineal line from the Han. Helian Bobo placed the Later Qin in a perpetual state of warfare and greatly contributed to its decline. In 418, he conquered the <a href="Guanzhong" title="Guanzhong">Guanzhong</a> region from the <a href="Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin dynasty</a> after the <a href="Liu_Yu's_Northern_Expeditions" title="Liu Yu's Northern Expeditions">Jin destroyed Qin</a> the previous year.

After Helian Bobo's death in 425, the Xia quickly declined due to pressure from the Northern Wei. In 428, the emperor, <a href="Helian_Chang" title="Helian Chang">Helian Chang</a> and capital were both captured by Wei forces. His brother, <a href="Helian_Ding" title="Helian Ding">Helian Ding</a> succeeded him and conquered the <a href="Western_Qin" title="Western Qin">Western Qin</a> in 431, but that same year, he was ambushed and imprisoned by the <a href="Tuyuhun" title="Tuyuhun">Tuyuhun</a> while attempting a campaign against <a href="Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a>. The Xia was at its end, and the following year, Helian Ding was sent to Wei where he was executed.

<a href="Tongwancheng" title="Tongwancheng">Tongwancheng</a> (meaning "Unite All Nations"), was one of the capitals of the Xia that was built during the reign of Helian Bobo. The ruined city was discovered in 1996<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> and the State Council designated it as a cultural relic under top state protection. The repair of the Yong'an Platform, where Helian Bobo reviewed parading troops, was completed and restoration on the 31 m (102 ft) tall turret follows.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Juqu_clan_and_Northern_Liang_dynasty_(401–460)">Juqu clan and Northern Liang dynasty (401–460)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a> and <a href="Lushuihu" title="Lushuihu">Lushuihu</a></div>

The Juqu clan were a <a href="Lushuihu" title="Lushuihu">Lushuihu</a> family that founded the <a href="Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang dynasty</a> in modern-day <a href="Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> in 397. Recent historiographies often classify the Northern Liang as a "Xiongnu" state, but there is still ongoing debate on the exact origin of the Lushuihu. A leading theory is that the Lushuihu were descendants of the <a href="Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Lesser Yuezhi</a> that had intermingled with the <a href="Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a> people, but based on the fact that the Juqu's ancestors once served the Xiongnu empire, the Lushuihu could still be considered a branch of the Xiongnu. Regardless, contemporaneous records treat the Lushuihu as a distinct ethnic group.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_二_卢水胡〉-148">[146]</a> The Northern Liang was known for its propagation of <a href="Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> in Gansu through their construction of Buddhist sites such as the <a href="Tiantishan_Caves" title="Tiantishan Caves">Tiantishan</a> and <a href="Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao</a> caves, and for being the last of the so-called Sixteen Kingdoms after it was conquered by the <a href="Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei dynasty</a> in 439.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> There was also the Northern Liang of <a href="Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Gaochang</a>, which existed between 442 and 460.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2></div>

The Xiongnu confederation was unusually long-lived for a steppe empire. The purpose of raiding the <a href="Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plain</a> was not simply for goods, but to force the Central Plain polity to pay regular tribute. The power of the Xiongnu ruler was based on his control of Han tribute which he used to reward his supporters. The Han and Xiongnu empires rose at the same time because the Xiongnu state depended on Han tribute. A major Xiongnu weakness was the custom of lateral succession. If a dead ruler's son was not old enough to take command, power passed to the late ruler's brother. This worked in the first generation but could lead to civil war in the second generation. The first time this happened, in 60 BC, the weaker party adopted what Barfield calls the 'inner frontier strategy.' They moved south and submitted to the dominant Central Plain regime and then used the resources obtained from their overlord to defeat the Northern Xiongnu and re-establish the empire. The second time this happened, around 47 AD, the strategy failed. The southern ruler was unable to defeat the northern ruler and the Xiongnu remained divided.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarfield1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-151">[149]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnolinguistic_origins">Ethnolinguistic origins</h2></div>

The Xiongnu empire is widely thought to have been multiethnic.<a href="#cite_note-JLEE-152">[150]</a> There are several theories on the ethnolinguistic identity of the Xiongnu, though there is no consensus among scholars as to what language was spoken by the Xiongnu elite.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposed_link_to_the_Huns">Proposed link to the Huns</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Origin_of_the_Huns" title="Origin of the Huns">Origin of the Huns</a></div>

<th colspan="2">Pronunciation of 匈奴

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> (318 BC):</td>

<td>*hoŋ-nâ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han Chinese</a>:</td>

<td>*hɨoŋ-nɑ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>:</td>

<td>*hɨoŋ-nuo

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Modern Mandarin</a>:</td>

<td>[ɕjʊ́ŋ nǔ]

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Sources: Schuessler (2014:264)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014264-59">[59]</a></li><li>& Zhengzhang Shangfang.<a href="#cite_note-:01-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-8">[8]</a></li></ul></div>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

The Xiongnu-Hun hypothesis was originally proposed by the 18th-century French historian <a href="Joseph_de_Guignes" title="Joseph de Guignes">Joseph de Guignes</a>, who noticed that ancient Chinese scholars had referred to members of tribes which were associated with the Xiongnu by names which were similar to the name "Hun", albeit with varying Chinese characters. <a href="%C3%89tienne_de_la_Vaissi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne de la Vaissière">Étienne de la Vaissière</a> has shown that, in the <a href="Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian script</a> used in the so-called "Sogdian Ancient Letters", both the Xiongnu and the Huns were referred to as the γwn (xwn), which indicates that the two names were synonymous.<a href="#cite_note-vaissiere2006-17">[17]</a> Although the theory that the Xiongnu were the precursors of the Huns as they were later known in Europe is now accepted by many scholars, it has yet to become a consensus view. The identification with the Huns may either be incorrect or it may be an oversimplification (as would appear to be the case with a <a href="Proto-Mongols" title="Proto-Mongols">proto-Mongol</a> people, the <a href="Rouran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouran">Rouran</a>, who have sometimes been linked to the <a href="Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars of Central Europe</a>).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iranian_theories">Iranian theories</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></div>

Most scholars agree that the Xiongnu elite may have been initially of <a href="Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a> origin, while later switching to a Turkic language.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> <a href="Harold_Walter_Bailey" title="Harold Walter Bailey">Harold Walter Bailey</a> proposed an <a href="Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> origin of the Xiongnu, recognizing all of the earliest Xiongnu names of the 2nd century BC as being of the <a href="Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a> type.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey198521–45-25">[25]</a> Central Asian scholar <a href="Christopher_I._Beckwith" title="Christopher I. Beckwith">Christopher I. Beckwith</a> notes that the Xiongnu name could be a cognate of <a href="Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian</a>, <a href="Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> and <a href="Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a>, corresponding to a name for <a href="Eastern_Iranian_languages" title="Eastern Iranian languages">Eastern Iranian Scythians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200971–73-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beckwith405-159">[157]</a> According to Beckwith the Xiongnu could have contained a leading Iranian component when they started out, but more likely they had earlier been subjects of an Iranian people and learned the Iranian nomadic model from them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200971–73-71">[71]</a>

In the 1994 <a href="UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>-published History of Civilizations of Central Asia, its editor <a href="J%C3%A1nos_Harmatta" title="János Harmatta">János Harmatta</a> claims that the royal tribes and kings of the Xiongnu bore Iranian names, that all Xiongnu words noted by the Chinese can be explained from a <a href="Scythian_languages" title="Scythian languages">Scythian language</a>, and that it is therefore clear that the majority of Xiongnu tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language.<a href="#cite_note-Harmatta488-24">[24]</a>

According to a study by Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong, published in 2020 in the journal Evolutionary Human Sciences, "The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic". However, important cultural, technological and political elements may have been transmitted by Eastern Iranian-speaking Steppe nomads: "Arguably, these Iranian-speaking groups were assimilated over time by the predominant Turkic-speaking part of the Xiongnu population".<a href="#cite_note-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020-160">[158]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yeniseian_theories">Yeniseian theories</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian languages</a> and <a href="Para-Yeniseian_languages" title="Para-Yeniseian languages">Para-Yeniseian languages</a></div>

<a href="Lajos_Ligeti" title="Lajos Ligeti">Lajos Ligeti</a> was the first to suggest that the Xiongnu spoke a Yeniseian language. In the early 1960s <a href="Edwin_Pulleyblank" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Pulleyblank">Edwin Pulleyblank</a> was the first to expand upon this idea with credible evidence. The Yeniseian theory proposes that the <a href="Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a>, a western Xiongnu people, spoke a Yeniseian language. <a href="Hyun_Jin_Kim" title="Hyun Jin Kim">Hyun Jin Kim</a> notes that the 7th century AD Chinese conpendium, Jin Shu, contains a transliterated song of Jie origin, which appears to be Yeniseian. This song has led researchers Pulleyblank and <a href="Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Vovin</a> to argue for a Yeniseian Jie dominant minority, that ruled over the other Xiongnu ethnicities, such as Iranian and Turkic people. Kim has stated that the dominant Xiongnu language was likely Turkic or Yeniseian, but has cautioned that the Xiongnu were definitely a multi-ethnic society.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a>

Pulleybank and D. N. Keightley asserted that the Xiongnu titles "were originally Siberian words but were later borrowed by the Turkic and Mongolic peoples".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004164-164">[162]</a> Titles such as <a href="Tarkhan" title="Tarkhan">tarqan</a>, <a href="Tegin" title="Tegin">tegin</a> and <a href="Khagan" title="Khagan">kaghan</a> were also inherited from the Xiongnu language and are possibly of Yeniseian origin. For example, the Xiongnu word for "heaven" is theorized to come from Proto-Yeniseian *tɨŋVr.<a href="#cite_note-Vovin-165">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a>

Vocabulary from Xiongnu inscriptions sometimes appears to have Yeniseian cognates which were used by Vovin to support his theory that the Xiongnu has a large Yeniseian component, examples of proposed cognates include words such as Xiongnu kʷala 'son' and Ket qalek 'younger son', Xiongnu sakdak 'boot' and Ket sagdi 'boot', Xiongnu gʷawa "prince" and Ket gij "prince", Xiongnu "attij" 'wife' and proto-Yeniseian "alrit", Ket "alit" and Xiongnu dar "north" compared to Yugh tɨr "north".<a href="#cite_note-Vovin-165">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> Pulleyblank also argued that because Xiongnu words appear to have clusters with r and l, in the beginning of the word it is unlikely to be of Turkic origin, and instead believed that most vocabulary we have mostly resemble Yeniseian languages.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a>

Alexander Vovin also wrote, that some names of horses in the Xiongnu language appear to be Turkic words with Yeniseian prefixes.<a href="#cite_note-Vovin-165">[163]</a>

An analysis by Savelyev and Jeong (2020) has cast doubt on the Yeniseian theory. If assuming that the ancient Yeniseians were represented by modern <a href="Ket_people" title="Ket people">Ket people</a>, who are more genetically similar to <a href="Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic</a> speakers, the Xiongnu do not display a genetic affinity for Yeniseian peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020-160">[158]</a> A review by Wilson (2023) argues that the presence of Yeniseian-speakers among the multi-ethnic Xiongnu should not be rejected, and that "Yeniseian-speaking peoples must have played a more prominent (than heretofore recognized) role in the history of Eurasia during the first millennium of the Common Era".<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a>

Bonmann and Fries (2025) argued that the Xiongnu and succeeding Huns were of multi-ethnic origin, but had, at least a partial, Paleo-Siberian, specifically Yeniseian ethnic core, corresponding to the early <a href="Arin_language" title="Arin language">Arin language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkic_theories">Turkic theories</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a></div>

According to a study by Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong, published in 2020 in the journal Evolutionary Human Sciences, "The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic". However, genetic studies found a mixture of haplogroups from western and eastern Eurasian origins that suggested large genetic diversity, and possibly multiple origins of Xiongnu elites. The Turkic-related component may be brought by eastern Eurasian genetic substratum.<a href="#cite_note-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020-160">[158]</a>

Other proponents of a Turkic language theory include <a href="Edward_Harper_Parker" title="Edward Harper Parker">E.H. Parker</a>, <a href="Jean-Pierre_Abel-R%C3%A9musat" title="Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat">Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat</a>, <a href="Julius_Klaproth" title="Julius Klaproth">Julius Klaproth</a>, <a href="Gustaf_John_Ramstedt" title="Gustaf John Ramstedt">Gustaf John Ramstedt</a>, <a href="Annemarie_von_Gabain" title="Annemarie von Gabain">Annemarie von Gabain</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020-160">[158]</a> and <a href="Charles_Hucker" title="Charles Hucker">Charles Hucker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1975136-18">[18]</a> André Wink states that the Xiongnu probably spoke an early form of Turkic; even if Xiongnu were not "Turks" nor Turkic-speaking, they were in close contact with Turkic-speakers very early on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWink200260–61-173">[171]</a> <a href="Craig_Benjamin" title="Craig Benjamin">Craig Benjamin</a> sees the Xiongnu as either proto-Turks or <a href="Proto-Mongols" title="Proto-Mongols">proto-Mongols</a> who possibly spoke a language related to the <a href="Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a>

Chinese sources link several Turkic peoples to the Xiongnu:

<ul><li>According to the <a href="Book_of_Zhou" title="Book of Zhou">Book of Zhou</a>, <a href="History_of_the_Northern_Dynasties" title="History of the Northern Dynasties">History of the Northern Dynasties</a>, <a href="Tongdian" title="Tongdian">Tongdian</a>, <a href="New_Book_of_Tang" title="New Book of Tang">New Book of Tang</a>, the <a href="G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> and the ruling <a href="Ashina_tribe" title="Ashina tribe">Ashina</a> clan was a component of the Xiongnu confederation,<a href="#cite_note-Zhou50-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-tongdian197-178">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a>

<ul><li>However, the Ashina-surnamed Göktürks were also stated to be they were "mixed barbarians" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%9C%E8%83%A1#Chinese" class="extiw external" title="wikt:雜胡">雜胡</a>; záhú) who fled from <a href="Pingliang" title="Pingliang">Pingliang</a> (now in modern <a href="Gansu_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gansu province">Gansu province</a>, <a href="China" title="China">China</a>).<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-tongdian197-178">[176]</a> or from an obscure Suo state (索國), north of the Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Uyghur Khagans claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to Chinese history <a href="Weishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Weishu">Weishu</a>, the founder of the <a href="Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a> was descended from a Xiongnu ruler).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden1992155-183">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Book_of_Wei" title="Book of Wei">Book of Wei</a> states that the Yueban descended from remnants of the <a href="Northern_Chanyu" title="Northern Chanyu">Northern Xiongnu chanyu</a>'s tribe and that Yueban's language and customs resembled Gaoche (高車),<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> another name of the Tiele.</li>

<li>The <a href="Book_of_Jin" title="Book of Jin">Book of Jin</a> lists 19 southern Xiongnu tribes who entered <a href="Former_Yan" title="Former Yan">Former Yan</a>'s borders, the 14th being the <a href="Alat_tribe" title="Alat tribe">Alat</a> (Ch. 賀賴 Helai ~ 賀蘭 Helan ~ 曷剌 Hela); Alat being glossed "piebald horse" (Ch. 駁馬 ~ 駮馬 Boma) in <a href="Old_Turkic" title="Old Turkic">Old Turkic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a></li></ul>

However, Chinese sources also ascribe Xiongnu origins to the Para-Mongolic-speaking <a href="Kumo_Xi" title="Kumo Xi">Kumo Xi</a> and <a href="Khitans" class="mw-redirect" title="Khitans">Khitans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lee2016p105-190">[188]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongolic_theories">Mongolic theories</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic languages</a></div>

Mongolian and other scholars have suggested that the Xiongnu spoke a language related to the <a href="Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> Mongolian archaeologists proposed that the <a href="Slab_Grave_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave Culture">Slab Grave Culture</a> people were the ancestors of the Xiongnu, and some scholars have suggested that the Xiongnu may have been the ancestors of the <a href="Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tumen-27">[27]</a> <a href="Hyacinth_(Bichurin)" title="Hyacinth (Bichurin)">Nikita Bichurin</a> considered Xiongnu and <a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> to be two subgroups (or <a href="Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasties</a>) of but one same <a href="Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-info-196">[194]</a>

According to the <a href="Book_of_Song" title="Book of Song">Book of Song</a>, the <a href="Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rourans</a>, which the <a href="Book_of_Wei" title="Book of Wei">Book of Wei</a> identified as offspring of <a href="Proto-Mongols" title="Proto-Mongols">Proto-Mongolic</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> <a href="Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu people</a>,<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> possessed the alternative name(s) 大檀 Dàtán "<a href="Tatar_confederation" title="Tatar confederation">Tatar</a>" and/or 檀檀 Tántán "Tartar" and according to the <a href="Book_of_Liang" title="Book of Liang">Book of Liang</a>, "they also constituted a separate branch of the Xiongnu".<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> The <a href="Old_Book_of_Tang" title="Old Book of Tang">Old Book of Tang</a> mentioned twenty Shiwei tribes,<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a> which other Chinese sources (the <a href="Book_of_Sui" title="Book of Sui">Book of Sui</a> and the <a href="New_Book_of_Tang" title="New Book of Tang">New Book of Tang</a>) associated with the <a href="Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Elina-Qian_2005_p._173-178-202">[200]</a> another people who in turn descended from the Xianbei<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> and were also associated with the Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> While the Xianbei, Khitans, and Shiwei are generally believed to be predominantly <a href="Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic-</a> and <a href="Para-Mongolic_languages" title="Para-Mongolic languages">Para-Mongolic-speaking</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Elina-Qian_2005_p._173-178-202">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> yet Xianbei were stated to descend from the <a href="Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu</a>, whom Sima Qian distinguished from the Xiongnu<a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> (notwithstanding Sima Qian's inconsistency<a href="#cite_note-hu_proper-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-ZGC-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-xiongnu_hu-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520-58">[58]</a>). Additionally, Chinese chroniclers routinely ascribed Xiongnu origins to various nomadic groups: for examples, Xiongnu ancestry was ascribed to Para-Mongolic-speaking <a href="Kumo_Xi" title="Kumo Xi">Kumo Xi</a>, as well as the Turkic-speaking <a href="G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> and <a href="Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tiele</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Lee2016p105-190">[188]</a>

<a href="Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> refers to the time of Modu Chanyu as "the remote times of our Chanyu" in his letter to Daoist <a href="Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Qiu Chuji</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Howorth-210">[208]</a> Moreover, the sun and moon symbol of Xiongnu discovered by archaeologists is similar to Mongolian <a href="Soyombo_symbol" title="Soyombo symbol">Soyombo symbol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiple_ethnicities">Multiple ethnicities</h3></div>

Since the early 19th century, a number of Western scholars have proposed a connection between various language families or subfamilies and the language or languages of the Xiongnu. <a href="Albert_Terrien_de_Lacouperie" title="Albert Terrien de Lacouperie">Albert Terrien de Lacouperie</a> considered them to be multi-component groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeng2005-33">[33]</a> Many scholars believe the Xiongnu confederation was a mixture of different ethno-linguistic groups, and that their main language (as represented in the Chinese sources) and its relationships have not yet been satisfactorily determined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004165-215">[213]</a> Kim rejects "old racial theories or even ethnic affiliations" in favour of the "historical reality of these extensive, multiethnic, polyglot steppe empires".<a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a>

Chinese sources link the <a href="Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tiele people</a> and Ashina to the Xiongnu, not all <a href="Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a>. According to the <a href="Book_of_Zhou" title="Book of Zhou">Book of Zhou</a> and the <a href="History_of_Northern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Dynasties">History of the Northern Dynasties</a>, the <a href="Ashina_tribe" title="Ashina tribe">Ashina</a> clan was a component of the Xiongnu confederation,<a href="#cite_note-Zhou502-217">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-Northern992-218">[216]</a> but this connection is disputed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian1998249-219">[217]</a> and according to the <a href="Book_of_Sui" title="Book of Sui">Book of Sui</a> and the <a href="Tongdian" title="Tongdian">Tongdian</a>, they were "mixed nomads" (<a href="Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%9C" class="extiw external" title="wikt:雜">雜</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%83%A1" class="extiw external" title="wikt:胡">胡</a>; <a href="Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 杂胡; <a href="Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: zá hú) from <a href="Pingliang" title="Pingliang">Pingliang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sui84-220">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tong197-221">[219]</a> The Ashina and Tiele may have been separate ethnic groups who mixed with the Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-ethnic-222">[220]</a> Indeed, Chinese sources link many nomadic peoples (hu; see <a href="Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Wu Hu</a>) on their northern borders to the Xiongnu, just as Greco-Roman historiographers called <a href="Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a> and <a href="Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> "<a href="Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>". The Greek <a href="Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> of <a href="Name_of_Turkey" title="Name of Turkey">Tourkia</a> (<a href="Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Τουρκία) was used by the <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> <a href="List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">emperor and scholar</a> <a href="Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a> in his book <a href="De_Administrando_Imperio" title="De Administrando Imperio">De Administrando Imperio</a>,<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-PrinzingSalamon1999-224">[222]</a> though in his use, "Turks" always referred to <a href="Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Howorth2008-225">[223]</a> Such archaizing was a common literary topos, and implied similar geographic origins and nomadic lifestyle but not direct filiation.<a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a>

Some <a href="Yugur" class="mw-redirect" title="Yugur">Uyghurs</a> claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to Chinese history <a href="Weishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Weishu">Weishu</a>, the founder of the <a href="Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a> was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden1992155-183">[181]</a> but many contemporary scholars do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate because modern <a href="Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur language</a> and <a href="Old_Uyghur_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Uyghur language">Old Uyghur languages</a> are different.<a href="#cite_note-Tursun-227">[225]</a> Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of people, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.<a href="#cite_note-xinjiang-228">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a>

In various kinds of ancient inscriptions on monuments of <a href="Munmu_of_Silla" title="Munmu of Silla">Munmu of Silla</a>, it is recorded that King Munmu had Xiongnu ancestry. According to several historians, it is possible that there were tribes of <a href="Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a> origin. There are also some Korean researchers that point out that the grave goods of Silla and of the eastern Xiongnu are alike.<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_isolate_theories">Language isolate theories</h3></div>

Turkologist <a href="Gerhard_Doerfer" title="Gerhard Doerfer">Gerhard Doerfer</a> has denied any possibility of a relationship between the Xiongnu language and any other known language, even any connection with Turkic or Mongolian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004164-164">[162]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_origins">Geographic origins</h2></div>

The original geographic location of the Xiongnu is disputed among steppe archaeologists. Since the 1960s, the geographic origin of the Xiongnu has attempted to be traced through an analysis of <a href="Early_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Iron Age">Early Iron Age</a> burial constructions. No region has been proven to have <a href="Morgue" title="Morgue">mortuary</a> practices that clearly match those of the Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h3></div>

In the 1920s, <a href="Pyotr_Kozlov" title="Pyotr Kozlov">Pyotr Kozlov</a> oversaw the excavation of royal tombs at the <a href="Noin-Ula_burial_site" title="Noin-Ula burial site">Noin-Ula burial site</a> in northern Mongolia, dated to around the first century AD. Other Xiongnu sites have been unearthed in <a href="Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, such as the <a href="Ordos_culture" title="Ordos culture">Ordos culture</a>. <a href="Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">Sinologist</a> Otto Maenchen-Helfen has said that depictions of the Xiongnu of <a href="Transbaikal" title="Transbaikal">Transbaikalia</a> and the Ordos commonly show individuals with West Eurasian features.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaenchen-Helfen1973[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcCpagen397_370]–371-237">[235]</a> Iaroslav Lebedynsky said that West Eurasian depictions in the Ordos region should be attributed to a "Scythian affinity".<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a>

Portraits found in the <a href="Noin-Ula_burial_site" title="Noin-Ula burial site">Noin-Ula excavations</a> demonstrate other cultural evidence and influences, showing that Chinese and Xiongnu art influenced each other mutually. Some of these embroidered portraits in the Noin-Ula <a href="Kurgan" title="Kurgan">kurgans</a> also depict the Xiongnu with long braided hair with wide ribbons, which is seen to be identical with the <a href="Ashina_tribe" title="Ashina tribe">Ashina clan</a> hair-style.<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> Well-preserved bodies in Xiongnu and pre-Xiongnu tombs in <a href="Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> and southern <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> show both East Asian and West Eurasian features.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a>

Analysis of cranial remains from some sites attributed to the Xiongnu have revealed that they had <a href="Dolichocephalic" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolichocephalic">dolichocephalic</a> skulls with East Asian craniometrical features, setting them apart from neighboring populations in present-day Mongolia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras200369-241">[239]</a> Russian and Chinese anthropological and craniofacial studies show that the Xiongnu were physically very heterogenous, with six different population clusters showing different degrees of West Eurasian and East Asian physical traits.<a href="#cite_note-Tumen-27">[27]</a>

Presently, there exist four fully excavated and well documented cemeteries: <a href="Ivolga_archaeological_site" title="Ivolga archaeological site">Ivolga</a>,<a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a> Dyrestui,<a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a> Burkhan Tolgoi,<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> and Daodunzi.<a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> Additionally thousands of tombs have been recorded in <a href="Transbaikal" title="Transbaikal">Transbaikalia</a> and Mongolia.

The archaeologists at a Xiongnu cemetery in <a href="Arkhangai_Province" title="Arkhangai Province">Arkhangai Province</a> said the following: <blockquote>"There is no clear indication of the ethnicity of this tomb occupant, but in a similar brick-chambered tomb of the late Eastern Han period at the same cemetery, archaeologists discovered a bronze seal with the official title that the Han government bestowed upon the leader of the Xiongnu. The excavators suggested that these brick chamber tombs all belong to the Xiongnu (Qinghai 1993)."<a href="#cite_note-Lai_34–43-249">[247]</a></blockquote>Classifications of these burial sites make distinction between two prevailing type of burials: "(1) monumental ramped terrace tombs which are often flanked by smaller "satellite" burials and (2) 'circular' or 'ring' burials."<a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a> Some scholars consider this a division between "elite" graves and "commoner" graves. Other scholars, find this division too simplistic and not evocative of a true distinction because it shows "ignorance of the nature of the mortuary investments and typically luxuriant burial assemblages [and does not account for] the discovery of other lesser interments that do not qualify as either of these types."<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Rouran_Khaganate#Genetics" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate § Genetics</a>, <a href="Xianbei#Genetics" title="Xianbei">Xianbei § Genetics</a>, <a href="Donghu_people#Genetics" title="Donghu people">Donghu people § Genetics</a>, <a href="Huns#Genetics" title="Huns">Huns § Genetics</a>, <a href="Scythians#Archaeogenetics" title="Scythians">Scythians § Archaeogenetics</a>, and <a href="Pannonian_Avars#Genetics" title="Pannonian Avars">Pannonian Avars § Genetics</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maternal_lineages">Maternal lineages</h3></div>

A 2003 study found that 89% of Xiongnu maternal lineages are of East Asian origin, while 11% were of West Eurasian origin. However, a 2016 study found that 37.5% of Xiongnu maternal lineages were West Eurasian, in a central Mongolian sample.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a>

According to Rogers & Kaestle (2022), these studies make clear that the Xiongnu population is extremely similar to the preceding <a href="Slab_Grave_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave culture">Slab Grave</a> population, which had a similar frequency of Eastern and Western maternal haplogroups, supporting a hypothesis of continuity from the Slab Grave period to the Xiongnu. They wrote that the bulk of the genetics research indicates that roughly 27% of Xiongnu maternal haplogroups were of West Eurasian origin, while the rest were East Asian.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a>

Some examples of maternal haplogroups observed in Xiongnu specimens include <a href="Haplogroup_D_(mtDNA)#D4" title="Haplogroup D (mtDNA)">D4b2b4</a>, <a href="Haplogroup_N_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup N (mtDNA)">N9a2a</a>, <a href="Haplogroup_G_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup G (mtDNA)">G3a3</a>, <a href="Haplogroup_D_(mtDNA)#D4" title="Haplogroup D (mtDNA)">D4a6</a> and <a href="Haplogroup_D_(mtDNA)#D4" title="Haplogroup D (mtDNA)">D4b2b2b</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_8,_Rows_87-88,_94-96-254">[252]</a> and <a href="Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup U (mtDNA)">U2e1</a>.<a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paternal_lineages">Paternal lineages</h3></div>

According to Rogers & Kaestle (2022), roughly 47% of Xiongnu period remains belonged to paternal haplogroups associated with modern West Eurasians, while the rest (53%) belonged to East Asian haplogroups. They observed that this contrasts strongly with the preceding <a href="Slab_Grave_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave culture">Slab Grave</a> period, which was dominated by East Asian patrilineages. They suggest that this may reflect an aggressive expansion of people with West Eurasian paternal haplogroups, or perhaps the practice of marriage alliances or cultural networks favoring people with Western patrilines.<a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a>

Some examples of paternal haplogroups in Xiongnu specimens include <a href="Haplogroup_Q_(Y-DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup Q (Y-DNA)">Q1b</a>,<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> <a href="Haplogroup_C-M217" title="Haplogroup C-M217">C3</a>,<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a> <a href="Haplogroup_R1" title="Haplogroup R1">R1</a>, <a href="Haplogroup_R1b" title="Haplogroup R1b">R1b</a>, <a href="Haplogroup_O-M175" title="Haplogroup O-M175">O3a</a> and <a href="Haplogroup_O-M175" title="Haplogroup O-M175">O3a3b2</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_9,_Rows_20-23-260">[258]</a> R1a1a1b2a-Z94, R1a1a1b2a2-Z2124, Q1a, N1a,<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> <a href="Haplogroup_J-M172" title="Haplogroup J-M172">J2a</a>, <a href="Haplogroup_J-M267" title="Haplogroup J-M267">J1a</a> and <a href="E1b1b" class="mw-redirect" title="E1b1b">E1b1b1a</a>.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a>

According to Lee & Kuang, the main paternal lineages of 62 Xiongnu Elite remains in the <a href="Egiin_Gol" title="Egiin Gol">Egiin Gol</a> valley belonged to the paternal <a href="Haplogroup_N1c1" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup N1c1">haplogroups N1c1</a>, <a href="Haplogroup_Q-M242" title="Haplogroup Q-M242">Q-M242</a>, and <a href="Haplogroup_C-M217" title="Haplogroup C-M217">C-M217</a>. One sample from Duurlig Nars belonged to <a href="Haplogroup_R1a" title="Haplogroup R1a">R1a1</a> and another to C-M217. Xiongnu remains from <a href="Barkol_Kazakh_Autonomous_County" title="Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County">Barkol</a> belonged exclusively to haplogroup Q. They argue that the haplogroups C2, Q and N likely formed the major paternal haplogroups of the Xiongnu tribes, while R1a was the most common paternal haplogroup (44.5%) among neighbouring nomads from the Altai mountain, who were probably incorporated into the Xiongnu confederation and may be associated with the <a href="Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autosomal_ancestry">Autosomal ancestry</h3></div>

A study published in the <a href="American_Journal_of_Physical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Physical Anthropology">American Journal of Physical Anthropology</a> in October 2006 detected significant genetic continuity between the examined individuals at Egyin Gol and modern Mongolians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeyser-Tracqui_et_al.2006272-264">[262]</a>

A genetic study published in <a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> in May 2018 examined the remains of five Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_2,_Rows_28-32-265">[263]</a> The study concluded that Xiongnu confederation was genetically heterogeneous, and Xiongnu individuals belonging to two distinct groups, one being of primarily <a href="East_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian">East Asian</a> origin (associated with the earlier <a href="Slab-grave_culture" title="Slab-grave culture">Slab-grave culture</a>) and the other presenting considerable admixture levels with West Eurasian (possibly from Central Saka) sources. The evidence suggested that the <a href="Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> probably emerged through minor male-driven geneflow into the Saka through westward migrations of the Xiongnu.<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a>

A study published in November 2020 examined 60 early and late Xiongnu individuals from across Mongolia. The study found that the Xiongnu resulted from the admixture of three different clusters from the Mongolian region. The two early genetic clusters are "early Xiongnu_west" from the <a href="Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a> (formed at 92% by the hybrid Eurasian <a href="Chandman" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandman">Chandman</a> ancestry, and 8% <a href="Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a> ancestry), and "early Xiongnu_rest" from the <a href="Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolian</a> Plateau (individuals with primarily <a href="Ulaanzuukh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulaanzuukh">Ulaanzuukh</a>-<a href="Slab_Grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave">Slab Grave</a> ancestry, or mixed with "early Xiongnu_west"). The later third cluster named "late Xiongnu" has even higher heterogenity, with the continued combination of <a href="Chandman" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandman">Chandman</a> and <a href="Ulaanzuukh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulaanzuukh">Ulaanzuukh</a>-<a href="Slab_Grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave">Slab Grave</a> ancestry, and additional geneflow from <a href="Sarmatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarmatian">Sarmatian</a> and <a href="Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> sources. Their uniparental haplogroup assignments also showed heterogenetic influence on their ethnogenesis as well as their connection with Huns.<a href="#cite_note-Choongwon-214">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> In contrast, the later <a href="Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a> had a much higher eastern Eurasian ancestry as a whole, similar to that of modern-day Mongolic-speaking populations.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a>

A Xiongnu remain (GD1-4) analysed in a 2024 study was found to be entirely derived from <a href="Ancient_Northeast_Asians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Northeast Asians">Ancient Northeast Asians</a> without any West Eurasian-associated ancestry. The sample clustered closely with a <a href="G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürk</a> remain (GD1-1) from the later Turkic period.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relationship_between_ethnicity_and_status_among_the_Xiongnu">Relationship between ethnicity and status among the Xiongnu</h4></div>

Although the Xiongnu were ethnically heterogeneous as a whole, it appears that variability was highly related to social status. Genetic heterogeneity was highest among retainers of low status, as identified by their smaller and peripheral tombs. These retainers mainly displayed ancestry related to the <a href="Chandman_culture" title="Chandman culture">Chandman/Uyuk culture</a> (characterized by a hybrid Eurasian gene pool combining the genetic profile of the <a href="Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a> and Baikal hunter-gatherers (<a href="Baikal_EBA" class="mw-redirect" title="Baikal EBA">Baikal EBA</a>)), or various combinations of <a href="Chandman_culture" title="Chandman culture">Chandman/Uyuk</a> and Ancient Northeast Asian <a href="Ulaanzuukh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulaanzuukh">Ulaanzuukh</a>/<a href="Slab_Grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave">Slab Grave</a> profiles.<a href="#cite_note-JLEE-152">[150]</a>

On the contrary, high status Xiongnu individuals tended to have less genetic diversity, and their ancestry was essentially derived from the Eastern Eurasian <a href="Ulaanzuukh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulaanzuukh">Ulaanzuukh</a>/<a href="Slab_Grave_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave culture">Slab Grave culture</a>, or alternatively from the <a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a>, suggesting multiple sources for their Eastern ancestry. High Eastern ancestry was more common among high status female samples, while low status male samples tended to be more diverse and having higher Western ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-JLEE-152">[150]</a> A likely <a href="Chanyu" title="Chanyu">chanyu</a>, a male ruler of the Empire identified by his prestigious tomb, was shown to have had similar ancestry as a high status female in the "western frontiers", deriving about 39.3% <a href="Slab_Grave_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Slab Grave culture">Slab Grave</a> (or <a href="Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">Ancient Northeast Asian</a>) genetic ancestry, 51.9% <a href="Han_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Han people">Han</a> (or Yellow River farmers) ancestry, with the rest (8.8%) being <a href="Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> (<a href="Chandman_culture" title="Chandman culture">Chandman</a>) ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-JLEE-152">[150]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div>

Within the Xiongnu culture more variety is visible from site to site than from "era" to "era," in terms of Chinese chronology, yet all form a whole that is distinct from that of the Han and other peoples of the non-Chinese north.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-275">[273]</a> In some instances, the iconography cannot be used as the main cultural identifier, because art depicting animal predation is common among the steppe peoples. An example of animal predation associated with Xiongnu culture is that of a tiger carrying dead prey.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-275">[273]</a> A similar motif appears in work from <a href="Maoqinggou" class="mw-redirect" title="Maoqinggou">Maoqinggou</a>, a site which is presumed to have been under Xiongnu political control but is still clearly non-Xiongnu. In the Maoqinggou example, the prey is replaced with an extension of the tiger's foot. The work also depicts a cruder level of execution; Maoqinggou work was executed in a rounder, less detailed style.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-275">[273]</a> In its broadest sense, Xiongnu iconography of animal predation includes examples such as the gold headdress from Aluchaideng and gold earrings with a turquoise and jade inlay discovered in <a href="Xigoupan" title="Xigoupan">Xigoupan</a>, Inner Mongolia.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-275">[273]</a>

Xiongnu art is harder to distinguish from <a href="Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> or <a href="Scythian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian art">Scythian art</a>. There is a similarity present in stylistic execution, but Xiongnu art and Saka art often differ in terms of iconography. Saka art does not appear to have included predation scenes, especially with dead prey, or same-animal combat. Additionally, Saka art included elements not common to Xiongnu iconography, such as winged, horned horses.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-275">[273]</a> The two cultures also used two different kinds of bird heads. Xiongnu depictions of birds tend to have a medium-sized eye and beak, and they are also depicted with ears, while Saka birds have a pronounced eye and beak, and no ears.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003102–103-276">[274]</a> Some scholars claim these differences are indicative of cultural differences. Scholar Sophia-Karin Psarras suggests that Xiongnu images of animal predation, specifically tiger-and-prey, are a spiritual representation of death and rebirth, and that same-animal combat is representative of the acquisition or maintenance of power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003102–103-276">[274]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rock_art_and_writing">Rock art and writing</h3></div>

The rock art of the <a href="Yin_Mountains" title="Yin Mountains">Yin</a> and <a href="Helan_Mountains" title="Helan Mountains">Helan Mountains</a> is dated from the 9th millennium BC to the 19th century AD. It consists mainly of engraved signs (petroglyphs) and only minimally of painted images.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemattè2006-278">[276]</a>

<a href="Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Chinese sources</a> indicate that the Xiongnu did not have an ideographic form of writing like Chinese, but in the 2nd century BC, a renegade Chinese dignitary Yue "taught the <a href="Shanyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanyu">Shanyu</a> to write official letters to the Chinese court on a wooden tablet 31 cm (12 in) long, and to use a seal and large-sized folder." The same sources tell that when the Xiongnu noted down something or transmitted a message, they made cuts on a piece of wood ('ke-mu'), and they also mention a "Hu script" (vol. <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7110" class="extiw external" title="zh:s:史記/卷110">110</a>). At Noin-Ula and other Xiongnu burial sites in Mongolia and the region north of Lake Baikal, among the objects discovered during excavations conducted in 1924 and 1925 were over 20 carved characters. Most of these characters are either identical or very similar to letters of the <a href="Old_Turkic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Turkic alphabet">Old Turkic alphabet</a> of the Early Middle Ages found on the Eurasian steppes. From this, some specialists conclude that the Xiongnu used a script similar to the ancient Eurasian runiform, and that this alphabet was a basis for later Turkic writing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIshjamts1996p._166,_Fig_6-279">[277]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_diet">Religion and diet</h3></div>

According to the <a href="Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a>, the Xiongnu called Heaven (天) 'Chēnglí,' (撐犁)<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> a Chinese transcription of <a href="Tengri" title="Tengri">Tengri</a>. The Xiongnu were a nomadic people. From their lifestyle of herding flocks and their horse-trade with China, it can be concluded that their diet consisted mainly of <a href="Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">mutton</a>, <a href="Horse_meat" title="Horse meat">horse meat</a> and wild geese that were shot down.

Historical evidence gives reason to believe that, from the 2nd century BC, proto-Mongol peoples (the Xiongnu, <a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a>, and <a href="Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a>) were familiar with Buddhism. Remains of Buddhist <a href="Prayer_beads" title="Prayer beads">prayer beads</a> were found in a Xiongnu grave in <a href="Ivolginsky_District" title="Ivolginsky District">Ivolginsky District</a>.<a href="#cite_note-a-281">[279]</a>

<li><a href="Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups in Chinese history</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="History of the Han dynasty">History of the Han dynasty</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">List of largest empires</a></li>

<li><a href="Chanyu#List_of_Xiongnu_Chanyus" title="Chanyu">List of Xiongnu rulers (Chanyus)</a></li>

<li><a href="Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Ordos_culture" title="Ordos culture">Ordos culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Chanyu#Chanyu_family_trees" title="Chanyu">Rulers family tree</a></li>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> This view was put forward to <a href="Wang_Mang" title="Wang Mang">Wang Mang</a> in AD 14.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Small bronze plaque showing a horseman with prominent cheekbones and full beard, from <a href="Troitskosavsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Troitskosavsk">Troitskosavsk</a>,Transbaikalia. Features are similar to those of the Xiongnu statue of <a href="Huo_Qubing" title="Huo Qubing">Huo Qubing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaenchen-Helfen1973[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcCpage370_370]-126">[125]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-yuuu86-384-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yuuu86-384_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yuuu86-384_5-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFYü1986" class="citation book cs1">Yü, Ying-shih (1986). "Han Foreign Relations". The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. Cambridge: <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 384. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-24327-8</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFShufen2002" class="citation journal cs1">Shufen, Liu (2002). "Ethnicity and the Suppression of Buddhism in Fifth-century North China: The Background and Significance of the Gaiwu Rebellion". Asia Major. 15 (1): 1–21. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-4482">0004-4482</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41649858">41649858</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:01-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:01_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:01_7-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFZheng_Zhang_(Chinese:_鄭張)" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ytenx.org/dciangx/dzih/%E5%8C%88/"><bdi lang="zh">匈 – 上古音系第一三千八百九十字</bdi></a> [匈 - The 13890th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網] (in Chinese). Rearranged by BYVoid.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:02-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_8-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFZheng_Zhang_(Chinese:_鄭張)" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ytenx.org/dciangx/dzih/%E5%A5%B4/"><bdi lang="zh">奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字</bdi></a> [奴 – The 9600th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網] (in Chinese). Rearranged by BYVoid.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGökalp2020" class="citation book cs1">Gökalp, Ziya (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QTPwDwAAQBAJ&q=Türk+Medeniyeti+Tarihi+orgun">Türk Medeniyeti Tarihi</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-605-4369-46-1</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200311191625/https://global.britannica.com/topic/Xiongnu">"Xiongnu People"</a>. britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global.britannica.com/topic/Xiongnu">the original</a> on 2020-03-11. Retrieved 2015-07-25.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004186-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004186_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo2004">Di Cosmo 2004</a>, p. 186.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChase-DunnAnderson2005" class="citation book cs1">Chase-Dunn, C.; Anderson, E. (18 February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HUTHAAAAQBAJ&dq=xiongnu+overthrew+yuezhi&pg=PA37">The Historical Evolution of World-Systems</a>. Springer. pp. 36–37. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4039-8052-6</bdi>.</cite> "The primary focus of the new threat became the Xiongnu who emerged rather abruptly in the late 4th century BC. Initially subordinated to the Yuezhi, the Xiongnu overthrew the nomadic hierarchy while also escalating its attacks on Chinese areas."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage19_19,_26–27]-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage19_19,_26–27]_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage19_19,_26–27]_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/19">19, 26–27</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank200017-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank200017_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank2000">Pulleyblank 2000</a>, p. 17.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014257,_264-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014257,_264_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014257,_264_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2014">Schuessler 2014</a>, pp. 257, 264.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009pp._404–405,_notes_51–52-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009pp._404–405,_notes_51–52_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009pp._404–405,_notes_51–52_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, pp. 404–405, notes 51–52.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-vaissiere2006-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vaissiere2006_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vaissiere2006_17-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFÉtienne_de_la_Vaissière2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Étienne de la Vaissière (15 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu">"Xiongnu"</a>. Encyclopedia Iranica online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104081516/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-01-04.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker1975136-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1975136_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHucker1975136_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHucker1975">Hucker 1975</a>, p. 136.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSavelyevJeong2020" class="citation journal cs1">Savelyev, Alexander; Jeong, Choongwon (10 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7612788">"Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West"</a>. Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2 e20. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fehs.2020.18">10.1017/ehs.2020.18</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0007-772B-4">21.11116/0000-0007-772B-4</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7612788">7612788</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35663512">35663512</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218935871">218935871</a>. <q>The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic (Late Proto-Turkic, to be more precise)</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRobbeetsBouckaert2018" class="citation journal cs1">Robbeets, Martine; Bouckaert, Remco (1 July 2018). "Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family". Journal of Language Evolution. 3 (2): 145–162. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjole%2Flzy007">10.1093/jole/lzy007</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0001-E3E6-B">21.11116/0000-0001-E3E6-B</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2058-4571">2058-4571</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNancy_Shatzman_Steinhardt2019" class="citation cs2">Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt (2019), "Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties", Chinese Architecture, Princeton University Press, pp. 72–103, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvc77f7s.11">10.2307/j.ctvc77f7s.11</a>, <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243720017">243720017</a></cite><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/Turcs/147681">"Turcs ou Turks"</a>. Larousse Rncyclopedie (in French). Larousse Éditions. Retrieved 2023-04-01.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1">Book of Zhou, vol. 50.</cite><cite class="citation book cs1">Henning 1948.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1">Sims-Williams 2004.</cite><cite class="citation book cs1">Pritsak 1959.</cite><cite class="citation book cs1">Hucker 1975, p. 136.</cite><cite class="citation book cs1">Jinshu vol. 97 Four Barbarians - Xiongnu".</cite><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Weishu. Vol. 102: Wusun, Shule, & Yueban. <q>悅般國，... 其先，匈奴北單于之部落也。... 其風俗言語與高車同</q></cite><cite class="citation book cs1">Yuanhe Maps and Records of Prefectures and Counties vol. 4 quote: "北人呼駮馬為賀蘭.</cite><cite id="CITEREFKim2013" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Hyun Jin (18 April 2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511920493">10.1017/cbo9780511920493</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-511-92049-3</bdi>.</cite><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Du You. Tongdian. Vol. 200: 突厥謂駮馬為曷剌,亦名曷剌國。.</cite><cite class="citation book cs1">Wink 2002, pp. 60–61.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Harmatta488-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harmatta488_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harmatta488_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarmatta1994">Harmatta 1994</a>, p. 488: "Their royal tribes and kings (shan-yü) bore Iranian names and all the Hsiung-nu words noted by the Chinese can be explained from an Iranian language of Saka type. It is therefore clear that the majority of Hsiung-nu tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey198521–45-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey198521–45_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey198521–45_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBailey1985">Bailey 1985</a>, pp. 21–45.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowski200626–27-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowski200626–27_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowski2006">Jankowski 2006</a>, pp. 26–27.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tumen-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tumen_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tumen_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tumen_27-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFTumen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Tumen D (February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130729140858/http://user.dankook.ac.kr/~oriental/Journal/pdf_new/49/11.pdf">"Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia"</a> (PDF). Oriental Studies. 49. Dankook University Institute of Oriental Studies: 25, 27. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://user.dankook.ac.kr/~oriental/Journal/pdf_new/49/11.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2013-07-29.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004166-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004166_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo2004">Di Cosmo 2004</a>, p. 166.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdas200188-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdas200188_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdas2001">Adas 2001</a>, p. 88.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVovin2000" class="citation journal cs1">Vovin, Alexander (2000). "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal. 44 (1): 87–104. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928223">41928223</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREF高晶一2017" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">高晶一, Jingyi Gao (2017). "Quèdìng xià guó jí kǎitè rén de yǔyán wéi shǔyú hànyǔ zú hé yè ní sāi yǔxì gòngtóng cí yuán" <bdi lang="zh">確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源</bdi> [Xia and Ket Identified by Sinitic and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies]. Central Asiatic Journal. 60 (1–2): 51–58. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13173%2Fcentasiaj.60.1-2.0051">10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051">10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165893686">165893686</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBonmannFries2025" class="citation journal cs1">Bonmann, Svenja; Fries, Simon (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968X.12321">"Linguistic Evidence Suggests That Xiōng-nú and Huns Spoke the Same Paleo-Siberian Language"</a>. Transactions of the Philological Society. 0: 1–24. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968X.12321">10.1111/1467-968X.12321</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeng2005-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeng2005_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeng2005_33-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeng2005">Geng 2005</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearce2023128-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearce2023128_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearce2023">Pearce 2023</a>, p. 128.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Zeldovich_2023-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Zeldovich_2023_35-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZeldovich2023" class="citation web cs1">Zeldovich, Lina (10 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20231106-the-powerful-women-of-an-ancient-empire">"The powerful women of an ancient empire"</a>. BBC Home. Retrieved 2025-03-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGao2013" class="citation journal cs1">Gao, Jingyi (高晶一) (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0041.pdf">"Huns and Xiongnu Identified by Hungarian and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies"</a> (PDF). Central Asiatic Journal. 56: 41. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-9192">0008-9192</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0041">10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0041</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Atwood, Christopher P. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=ealc">"The Kai, the Khongai, and the Names of the Xiōngnú"</a>. International Journal of Eurasian Studies. 2: p of 45–47 of 35–63.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019" class="citation journal cs1">Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; Bernardos, Rebecca (6 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6822619">"The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia"</a>. Science. 365 (6457). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aat7487">10.1126/science.aat7487</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6822619">6822619</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31488661">31488661</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKhenzykhenovaKradinDanukalovaShchetnikov2020" class="citation journal cs1">Khenzykhenova, Fedora I.; Kradin, Nikolai N.; Danukalova, Guzel A.; Shchetnikov, Alexander A.; Osipova, Eugenia M.; Matveev, Arkady N.; Yuriev, Anatoly L.; Namzalova, Oyuna D. -Ts; Prokopets, Stanislav D.; Lyashchevskaya, Marina A.; Schepina, Natalia A.; Namsaraeva, Solonga B.; Martynovich, Nikolai V. (30 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1040618219307918">"The human environment of the Xiongnu Ivolga Fortress (West Trans-Baikal area, Russia): Initial data"</a>. Quaternary International. 546: 216–228. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020QuInt.546..216K">2020QuInt.546..216K</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quaint.2019.09.041">10.1016/j.quaint.2019.09.041</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-6182">1040-6182</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210787385">210787385</a>.</cite> "The slab graves culture existed in this territory prior to the Xiongnu empire. Sites of this culture dating back to approximately 1100-400/300 BC are common in Mongolia and the Trans-Baikal area. The earliest calibrated dates are prior to 1500 BC (Miyamoto et al., 2016). Later dates are usually 100–200 years earlier than the Xiongnu culture. Therefore, it is customarily considered that the slab grave culture preceded the Xiongnu culture. There is only one case, reported by Miyamoto et al. (2016), in which the date of the slab grave corresponds to the time of the making of the Xiongnu Empire."

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<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogersKaestle2022">Rogers & Kaestle 2022</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-WT-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WT_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WT_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WT_41-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WT_41-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFTse2018" class="citation book cs1">Tse, Wicky W. K. (27 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-y9iDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45">The Collapse of China's Later Han Dynasty, 25-220 CE: The Northwest Borderlands and the Edge of Empire</a>. Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-y9iDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45">45–46</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-y9iDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63">63 note 40</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-315-53231-8</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLinduffRubinson2021" class="citation book cs1">Linduff, Katheryn M.; Rubinson, Karen S. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RAdUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT69">Pazyryk Culture Up in the Altai</a>. Routledge. p. 69. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-429-85153-7</bdi>. <q>The rise of the confederation of the Xiongnu, in addition, clearly affected this region as it did most regions of the Altai</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pazyryk">"Pazyryk | archaeological site, Kazakhstan"</a>. Britannica.com. 11 September 2001. Retrieved 2019-03-05.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFState_Hermitage_Museum2007">State Hermitage Museum 2007</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhitehouse2016">Whitehouse 2016</a>, p. 369: "From that time until the HAN dynasty the Ordos steppe was the home of semi-nomadic Indo-European peoples whose culture can be regarded as an eastern province of a vast Eurasian continuum of Scytho-Siberian cultures."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Harmatta348-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Harmatta348_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarmatta1992">Harmatta 1992</a>, p. 348: "From the first millennium b.c., we have abundant historical, archaeological and linguistic sources for the location of the territory inhabited by the Iranian peoples. In this period the territory of the northern Iranians, they being equestrian nomads, extended over the whole zone of the steppes and the wooded steppes and even the semi-deserts from the Great Hungarian Plain to the Ordos in northern China."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFUnterländerPalstraLazaridisPilipenko2017" class="citation journal cs1">Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin (3 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5337992">"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe"</a>. <a href="Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a>. 8 14615. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatCo...814615U">2017NatCo...814615U</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms14615">10.1038/ncomms14615</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5337992">5337992</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28256537">28256537</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBenjamin2017" class="citation web cs1">Benjamin, Craig (29 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-49">"The Yuezhi"</a>. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277727.013.49">10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.49</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-027772-7</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBangBaylyScheidel2020" class="citation book cs1">Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (2 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6GkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA330">The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: The History of Empires</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 330. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-753278-2</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarshak2002" class="citation book cs1">Marshak, Boris Ilʹich (1 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XUyajzkDJ50C&pg=PA9">Peerless Images: Persian Painting and Its Sources</a>. Yale University Press. p. 9. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-300-09038-3</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIlyasovRusanov1997" class="citation journal cs1">Ilyasov, Jangar Ya.; Rusanov, Dmitriy V. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7847889">"A Study on the Bone Plates from Orlat"</a>. Silk Road Art and Archaeology. 5 (1997/98). Kamakura, Japan: The Institute of Silk Road Studies: 107–159. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0917-1614">0917-1614</a>. p. 127: <q>The image on this belt-buckle represents a rider striking a wild boar with a spear.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-HPF-52"><a href="#cite_ref-HPF_52-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFrancfort2020" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Henri-Paul_Francfort" title="Henri-Paul Francfort">Francfort, Henri-Paul</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/45042820">"Sur quelques vestiges et indices nouveaux de l'hellénisme dans les arts entre la Bactriane et le Gandhāra (130 av. J.-C.-100 apr. J.-C. environ)"</a> [On some vestiges and new indications of Hellenism in the arts between Bactria and Gandhāra (130 BC-100 AD approximately)]. Journal des Savants: 35–39. <q>Page 36: "A renowned openwork gold plate found on the surface of the site depicts a wild boar hunt at the spear by a rider in steppe dress, in a frame of ovals arranged in cells intended to receive inlays (fig. 14). We can today attribute it to a local craft whose intention was to satisfy a horserider patron originating from the distant steppes and related to the Xiongnu" (French: "On peut aujourd'hui l'attribuer à un art local dont l'intention était de satisfaire un patron cavalier originaire des steppes lointaines et apparenté aux Xiongnu.")<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>p. 36: "We can also clearly distinguish the crupper adorned with three rings forming a chain, as well as, on the shoulder of the mount, a very recognizable clip-shaped pendant, suspended from a chain passing in front of the chest and going up to the pommel of the saddle, whose known parallels are not to be found among the Scythians but in the realm of the Xiongnu, on bronze plaques from Mongolia and China" (French: "les parallèles connus ne se trouvent pas chez les Scythes mais dans le domaine des Xiongnu").<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>p. 38: "The hairstyle of the hunter, with long hair pulled back and gathered in a bun, is also found at <a href="Takht-i_Sangin" title="Takht-i Sangin">Takht-i Sangin</a>; it is that of the eastern steppes, which can be seen on the wild boar hunting plaque "des Iyrques" (fig. 15)" (French: La coiffure du chasseur, aux longs cheveux tirés en arrière et rassemblés en chignon, se retrouve à <a href="Takht-i_Sangin" title="Takht-i Sangin">Takht-i Sangin</a>; C'est celle des steppes orientales, que l'on remarque sur les plaques de la chasse au sanglier «des Iyrques» (fig. 15)</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> "The Account of the Xiongnu, Records of the Grand Historian",Sima Qian.DOI: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004216358_00">https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004216358_00</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Shiji <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctext.org/shiji/xiong-nu-lie-zhuan">Ch. 110: Xiongnu liezhuan</a> quote: "匈奴，其先祖夏后氏之苗裔也，曰淳維。"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo20022-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo20022_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo2002">Di Cosmo 2002</a>, p. 2.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a> <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7081#%E9%99%84_%E6%9D%8E%E7%89%A7">Vol. 81 "Stories about Lian Po and Lin Xiangru - Addendum: Li Mu"</a> text: "李牧者，趙之北邊良將也。常居代鴈門，備匈奴。" translation: "About <a href="Li_Mu" title="Li Mu">Li Mu</a>, he was a good general at <a href="Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">Zhao</a>'s northern borders. He often stationed at Dai and Wild Goose Gate, prepared [against] the Xiongnu."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Theobald, Ulrich (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/personslimu.html">"Li Mu 李牧"</a> in ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994518–520_58-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1994">Pulleyblank 1994</a>, pp. 518–520.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014264-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014264_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2014264_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2014">Schuessler 2014</a>, p. 264.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker200227–28-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker200227–28_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, pp. 27–28.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2002129-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2002129_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo2002">Di Cosmo 2002</a>, p. 129.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-hu_proper-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hu_proper_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hu_proper_62-1">b</a> Shiji, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctext.org/shiji/zhao-shi-jia#n6694">"Hereditary House of Zhao"</a> quote: "今中山在我腹心，北有燕，東有胡，西有林胡、樓煩、秦、韓之邊，而無彊兵之救，是亡社稷，柰何？" translation: "(<a href="King_Wuling_of_Zhao" title="King Wuling of Zhao">King Wuling of Zhao</a> to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/personslouhuan.html">Lou Huan</a>:) Now <a href="Zhongshan_(state)" title="Zhongshan (state)">Zhongshan</a> is at our heart and belly [note: Zhao surrounded Zhongshan, except on Zhongshan's north-eastern side], <a href="Yan_(state)" title="Yan (state)">Yan</a> to the north, Hu to the east, Forest Hu, <a href="Loufan_County#Name" title="Loufan County">Loufan</a>, <a href="Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a>, <a href="Han_(Warring_States)" title="Han (Warring States)">Han</a> at our borders to the west. Yet we have no strong army to help us, surely we will lose our country. What is to be done?"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ZGC-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ZGC_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ZGC_63-1">b</a> Compare a parallel passage in <a href="Stratagems_of_the_Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratagems of the Warring States">Stratagems of the Warring States</a>, "King Wuling spends his day in idleness", quote: "自常山以至代、上黨，東有燕、東胡之境，西有樓煩、秦、韓之邊，而無騎射之備。" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jenniferdodgson.wixsite.com/warringstates/wuling">Jennifer Dodgson's translation</a>: "From <a href="Mount_Heng_(Shanxi)" title="Mount Heng (Shanxi)">Mount Chang</a> to <a href="Dai_(Spring_and_Autumn_period)" title="Dai (Spring and Autumn period)">Dai</a> and <a href="Shangdang_Commandery" title="Shangdang Commandery">Shangdang</a>, our lands border Yan and the Donghu in the east, and to the west we have the Loufan and shared borders with Qin and Han. Nevertheless, we have no mounted archers ready for action."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-xiongnu_hu-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-xiongnu_hu_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-xiongnu_hu_64-1">b</a> Shiji, <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7110">Vol. 110 "Account of the Xiongnu"</a>. quote: "後秦滅六國，而始皇帝使蒙恬將十萬之眾北擊胡，悉收河南地。…… 匈奴單于曰頭曼，頭曼不勝秦，北徙。" translation: "Later on, Qin conquered the six other states, and the <a href="Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">First Emperor</a> dispatched general <a href="Meng_Tian" title="Meng Tian">Meng Tian</a> to lead a multitude of 100,000 north to attack the Hu; and he took all lands south the Yellow River. [...] The Xiongnu chanyu was Touman; Touman could not win against Qin, so [they] fled north."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2002107-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2002107_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2002107_65-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo2002">Di Cosmo 2002</a>, p. 107.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999892–893-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999892–893_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo1999">Di Cosmo 1999</a>, pp. 892–893.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994514–523-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1994514–523_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1994">Pulleyblank 1994</a>, pp. 514–523.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank200020-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank200020_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank2000">Pulleyblank 2000</a>, p. 20.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999892–893,_964-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999892–893,_964_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999892–893,_964_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo1999">Di Cosmo 1999</a>, pp. 892–893, 964.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRawson2017" class="citation journal cs1">Rawson, Jessica (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003598X16002763/type/journal_article">"China and the steppe: reception and resistance"</a>. <a href="Antiquity_(journal)" title="Antiquity (journal)">Antiquity</a>. 91 (356): 375–388. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2016.276">10.15184/aqy.2016.276</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-598X">0003-598X</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165092308">165092308</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200971–73-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200971–73_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200971–73_71-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200971–73_71-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, pp. 71–73.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley199338-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBentley199338_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBentley1993">Bentley 1993</a>, p. 38.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBaumer2018" class="citation book cs1">Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA4">History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set</a>. <a href="Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>. p. 4. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-83860-868-2</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999885–966-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo1999885–966_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo1999">Di Cosmo 1999</a>, pp. 885–966.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley199336-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBentley199336_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBentley199336_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBentley199336_75-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBentley1993">Bentley 1993</a>, p. 36.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> 又《漢書》："使王烏等窺匈奴。法，漢使不去節，不以墨黥面，不得入穹盧。王烏等去節、黥面，得入穹盧，單於愛之。" from Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang, <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%85%89%E9%99%BD%E9%9B%9C%E4%BF%8E/%E5%8D%B7%E5%85%AB">Scroll 8</a> Translation from <cite id="CITEREFReed2000" class="citation journal cs1">Reed, Carrie E. (2000). "Tattoo in Early China". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 120 (3): 360–376. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F606008">10.2307/606008</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/606008">606008</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Museum notice

</li>

<li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKradin2020" class="citation conference cs1">Kradin, Nikolay N. (23 January 2020). Competing Narratives between Nomadic People and their Sedentary Neighbours. 7th International Conference on the Medieval History of the Eurasian Steppe. Competing Narratives between Nomadic People and their Sedentary Neighbours. Vol. 53. pp. 149–165. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14232%2Fsua.2019.53.149-165">10.14232/sua.2019.53.149-165</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-963-306-708-6</bdi>. <q>Nonetheless, among archaeologists, there are many supporters of the Xiongnu migration to the West. In recent years, S. Botalov (2009) constructed a broad picture of the migration of the Xiongnu to the Urals, and then Europe. In Kazakhstan, A. N. Podushkin discovered the Arysskaya culture with a distinct stage of Xiongnu influence (2009). Russian archaeologists are actively studying the Hun sites in the Caucasus (Gmyrya 1993; 1995)</q></cite> Citing:

<ul><li>Botalov, S. G. (2009). Гунны и турки Gunny i tiurki [Huns and Turks]. (in Russian) Chelyabinsk: Рифей</li>

<li>Gmyrya, L. B. (1993). Prikaspiiskiy Dagestan v epokhu velikogo pereseleniia narodov. Mogilniki [Caspian Dagestan in the Period of the Great Migration of the Peoples. Burial Places]. (in Russian) Mahachkala: Dagestan Scientific Center, RAS Press.</li>

<li><a href="Aleksandr_Podushkin" title="Aleksandr Podushkin">Podushkin, A. N.</a> (2009). "Xiongnu v Yuznom Kazakhstane". ["Xiongnu in Southern Kazakhstan"]. In: Z. Samashev (ed.) Nomady kazakhstanskikh stepey: etnosociokulturnye protsessy i kontakty v Evrazii skifo sakskoy epokhi [Nomads of the Kazakh Steppes: Ethno-socio-cultural Processes and Contacts in Eurasia of the Scythian-Saka Era]. (in Russian). Astana: Ministry of Culture and Information of the Kazakhstan Republic pp. 47‒154</li></ul>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-bar81-48-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bar81-48_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bar81-48_79-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bar81-48_79-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFBarfield1981" class="citation journal cs1">Barfield, Thomas J. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2055601">"The Hsiung-nu imperial confederacy: Organization and foreign policy"</a>. The Journal of Asian Studies. 41 (1): 45–61. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2055601">10.2307/2055601</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2055601">2055601</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145078285">145078285</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. .

</li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dijitalhoca.com.tr/makale/asya-hun-devleti-buyuk-hun-imparatorlugu-m-o-220-m-s-216-288">"ASYA HUN DEVLETİ (BÜYÜK HUN İMPARATORLUĞU) (M.Ö. 220 – M.S.216 ) — Dijital Hoca"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trtavaz.com.tr/haber/tur/avrasyadan/turklerin-tarihi-baskenti-otuken/617b88b501a30a10a4e18f84#">"Türklerin tarihî başkenti: Ötüken - Avrasya'dan - Haber"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://akipress.com/news:645769:Archeologists_discover_capital_of_Xiongnu_Empire_in_central_Mongolia">"Archeologists discover capital of Xiongnu Empire in central Mongolia"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYap2009liii-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYap2009liii_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYap2009">Yap 2009</a>, p. liii.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLo2015" class="citation book cs1">Lo, Ping-cheung (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KlhCQAAQBAJ&dq=han+fake+princess+xiongnu&pg=PA269">"11 Legalism and offensive realism in the Chinese court debate on defending national security 81 BCE"</a>. In Lo, Ping-cheung; Twiss, Sumner B. (eds.). Chinese Just War Ethics: Origin, Development, and Dissent. War, Conflict and Ethics (illustrated ed.). <a href="Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 269. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-317-58097-3</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>There were altogether nine marriages of Han princesses (fake or real) to the Xiongnu during these roughly 60 years (for a complete list of details, see Cui 2007a, 555). We will call this policy Heqin Model One, and, as Ying-shih Yu ...</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFQian2019" class="citation book cs1">Qian, Sima (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-OGDwAAQBAJ&dq=han+fake+princess+xiongnu&pg=PT902">Historical Records 史记: The First and Most Important Biographical General History Book in China</a>. DeepLogic – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>Liu Jing said: "The Han dynasty was just calm, the soldiers were exhausted by the fire, and the Xiongnu could not be ... If the majesty could not send a big princess, let the royal woman or the fake princess, he I will know that I will ...</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChin2020" class="citation book cs1">Chin, Tamara T. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5_YFEAAAQBAJ&dq=han+fake+princess+xiongnu&pg=PA225">Savage Exchange: Han Imperialism, Chinese Literary Style, and the Economic Imagination</a>. Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law. <a href="Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">BRILL</a>. p. 225. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-68417-078-4</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>In the Han- Wusun alliance (unlike the Han- Xiongnu heqin agreements) the gifts flowed in the proper direction, ... Thus, while Empress Lü transgressed the heqin marriage in having a false princess sent, Liu Jing's original proposal ...</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChin2005" class="citation book cs1">Chin, Tamara Ta Lun (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hi9PAQAAMAAJ&q=han+fake+princess+xiongnu">Savage Exchange: Figuring the Foreign in the Early Han Dynasty</a>. <a href="University_of_California%2C_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. pp. 66, 73, 74 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>Figuring the Foreign in the Early Han Dynasty Tamara Ta Lun Chin ... Emperor Han Wudi's military push to reverse the power relations between Xiongnu and Han stands in stark contrast to the original ... Xiongnu with a false princess.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMosol2013" class="citation book cs1">Mosol, Lee (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DyN-AwAAQBAJ&dq=han+fake+princess+xiongnu&pg=PA77">Ancient History of the Manchuria</a>. X libris Corporation. p. 77. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4836-6767-6</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>... 孝文皇帝 sent a girl as a new wife for the Chanyu as a 'fake princess of Royal family' with a eunuch named '中行 ... The Han lured the Xiongnu chief deep into the China proper town called "馬邑," but Gunchen Chanyu realized the trap ...</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMooreyMarkoe1981" class="citation book cs1">Moorey, P. R. S. (Peter Roger Stuart); Markoe, Glenn (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientbronzesce00losa/page/168/mode/1up">Ancient bronzes, ceramics, and seals: The Nasli M. Heeramaneck Collection of ancient Near Eastern, central Asiatic, and European art, gift of the Ahmanson Foundation</a>. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles County Museum of Art. p. 168, item 887. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87587-100-4</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.lacma.org/node/226294">"Belt Buckle LACMA Collections"</a>. collections.lacma.org.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Prior_SR14_2016_186_195-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Prior_SR14_2016_186_195_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prior_SR14_2016_186_195_92-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPrior2016" class="citation journal cs1">Prior, Daniel (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol14/Prior_SR14_2016_186_195.pdf">"FASTENING THE BUCKLE: A STRAND OF XIONGNU-ERA NARRATIVE IN A RECENT KIRGHIZ EPIC POEM"</a> (PDF). The Silk Road. 14: 191.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSoBunker1995" class="citation book cs1">So, Jenny F.; Bunker, Emma C. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tradersraiderson00soje/page/22/mode/1up?view=theater">Traders and raiders on China's northern frontier</a>. Seattle : Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, in association with University of Washington Press. pp. 22, 90. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-295-97473-6</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFrancfort2020" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Henri-Paul_Francfort" title="Henri-Paul Francfort">Francfort, Henri-Paul</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/45042820">"Sur quelques vestiges et indices nouveaux de l'hellénisme dans les arts entre la Bactriane et le Gandhāra (130 av. J.-C.-100 apr. J.-C. environ)"</a>. Journal des Savants. 1. p. 37, Fig.16. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fjds.2020.6422">10.3406/jds.2020.6422</a>. <q>"Bronze plaque from northwestern China or south central Interior Mongolia, wrestling Xiongnus, the horses have Xiongnu-type trappings" (French: "Plaque en bronze ajouré du nord-ouest de la Chine ou Mongolie intérieure méridionale centrale, Xiongnu luttant, les chevaux portent des harnachements de «type Xiongnu».")</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFdi_Cosmo" class="citation cs2">di Cosmo, Nicola, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/5147439">Aristocratic elites in the Xiongnu empire</a>, p. 31</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-SimaWatson1993-96"><a href="#cite_ref-SimaWatson1993_96-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSimaWatson1993" class="citation book cs1">Sima, Qian; Watson, Burton (January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YNlgKEVYdHEC&q=li+guangli+daughter&pg=PA161">Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty</a>. Renditions-<a href="Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. pp. 161–. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-231-08166-5</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-1wAAAAMAAJ&q=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu">Monumenta Serica</a>. H. Vetch. 2004. p. 81 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Wakeman1985-98"><a href="#cite_ref-Wakeman1985_98-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWakeman1985" class="citation book cs1">Wakeman, Frederic E. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA41">The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China</a>. <a href="University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 41–. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-04804-1</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSima1993" class="citation book cs1">Sima, Qian (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dokumen.pub/records-of-the-grand-historian-han-dynasty-ii-0231081677-9780231081672.html">Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 128. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-231-08167-7</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLin_Jianming_(林剑鸣)1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lqfrEY8UW1UC&pg=PA557"><bdi lang="zh">秦漢史</bdi></a> [History of Qin and Han]. Wunan Publishing. pp. 557–558. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-957-11-0574-1</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHong2018" class="citation book cs1">Hong, Yuan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nay8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA419">The Sinitic Civilization Book II: A Factual History Through the Lens of Archaeology, Bronzeware, Astronomy, Divination, Calendar and the Annals</a> (abridged ed.). iUniversе. p. 419. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5320-5830-1</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-James_A._Millward_2007_20-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-James_A._Millward_2007_20_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-James_A._Millward_2007_20_102-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFMillward2007" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&q=zhang+qian+wife&pg=PA20">Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang</a>. <a href="Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. p. 20. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-231-13924-3</bdi>. Retrieved 2011-04-17 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLovell2007" class="citation book cs1">Lovell, Julia (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IWS53cuiuVgC&q=zhang+xiongnu+wife+children+managed+to+escape&pg=PA73">The Great Wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC – AD 2000</a>. <a href="Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. p. 73. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8021-4297-9</bdi>. Retrieved 2011-04-17 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAndreaOverfield1998" class="citation book cs1">Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QJsx7eQ0rwAC&q=zhang+qian+wife">The Human Record: To 1700</a>. <a href="Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>. p. 165. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-395-87087-7</bdi>. Retrieved 2011-04-17 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Yiping_Zhang_2005_22-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yiping_Zhang_2005_22_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yiping_Zhang_2005_22_105-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFZhang2005" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Yiping (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=35L3Ww72M-YC&q=zhang+qian+wife&pg=PA22">Story of the Silk Road</a>. <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E6%B4%B2%E4%BC%A0%E6%92%AD%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE" class="extiw external" title="zh:五洲传播出版社">China Intercontinental Press</a>. p. 22. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-7-5085-0832-0</bdi>. Retrieved 2011-04-17.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Charles_Higham_2004_409-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Charles_Higham_2004_409_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Charles_Higham_2004_409_106-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFHigham2004" class="citation book cs1">Higham, Charles (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&q=zhang+qian+wife&pg=PA409">Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations</a>. <a href="Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Infobase Publishing</a>. p. 409. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8160-4640-9</bdi>. Retrieved 2011-04-17 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIndian_Society_for_PrehistoricQuaternary_Studies1998" class="citation book cs1">Indian Society for Prehistoric & Quaternary Studies (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3EyBAAAAMAAJ&q=123+BC+with+his+Xiongnu+wife+and+the+slave+Ganfu">Man and environment, Volume 23, Issue 1</a>. Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies. p. 6. Retrieved 2011-04-17 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Mayor2014-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mayor2014_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mayor2014_108-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFMayor2014" class="citation book cs1">Mayor, Adrienne (22 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rboWBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA422">The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World</a>. <a href="Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. 422–. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4008-6513-0</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVeronika_Veit2007" class="citation book cs1">Veronika Veit, ed. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA61">The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001</a>. Asiatische Forschungen. Vol. 152 (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 61. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-447-05537-6</bdi>. Retrieved 2012-02-08 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDrompp2005" class="citation book cs1">Drompp, Michael Robert (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC&pg=PA126">Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history</a>. Brill's Inner Asian library. Vol. 13 (illustrated ed.). <a href="Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">BRILL</a>. p. 126. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>90-04-14129-4</bdi>. Retrieved 2012-02-08 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Kyzlasov-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Kyzlasov_111-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKyzlasov2010" class="citation book cs1">Kyzlasov, Leonid R. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbdrx.ru/pdf/bx00000168.pdf">The Urban Civilization of Northern and Innermost Asia Historical and Archaeological Research</a> (PDF). Curatores seriei Victor Spinei et Ionel Candeâ VII. Romanian Academy Institute of Archaeology of Iaşi Editura Academiei Romane - Editura Istros. p. 245. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-973-27-1962-6</bdi>. Florilegium magistrorum historiae archaeologiaeque Antiqutatis et Medii Aevi.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDrompp2021" class="citation book cs1">Drompp, Michael (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5oZSEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22it+is+interesting+to+see+how+the+Kirghiz+apparently+had+retained+a+tradition+of+historical+memory%22&pg=PA126">Tang China and the Collapse of the Uighur Empire: A Documentary History</a>. Brill's Inner Asian Library. <a href="Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">BRILL</a>. p. 126. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-474-1478-0</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVeit2007" class="citation book cs1">Veit, Veronika (2007). The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 61. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-447-05537-6</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/182731462">182731462</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDrompp1999" class="citation journal cs1">Drompp, Michael R. (1999). "Breaking the Orkhon Tradition: Kirghiz Adherence to the Yenisei Region after A. D. 840". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (3): 394–395. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F605932">10.2307/605932</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/605932">605932</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLovell2007" class="citation book cs1">Lovell, Julia (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IWS53cuiuVgC&q=zhang+xiongnu+wife+children+managed+to+escape&pg=PA73">The Great Wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC – AD 2000</a>. <a href="Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. p. 73. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8021-4297-9</bdi>. Retrieved 2011-04-17 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAndreaOverfield1998" class="citation book cs1">Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QJsx7eQ0rwAC&q=zhang+qian+wife">The Human Record: To 1700</a>. <a href="Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>. p. 165. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-395-87087-7</bdi>. Retrieved 2011-04-17 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFIndian_Society_for_PrehistoricQuaternary_Studies1998" class="citation book cs1">Indian Society for Prehistoric & Quaternary Studies (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3EyBAAAAMAAJ&q=123+BC+with+his+Xiongnu+wife+and+the+slave+Ganfu">Man and environment, Volume 23, Issue 1</a>. Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies. p. 6. Retrieved 2011-04-17 – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage34_34]-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage34_34]_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/34">34</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1974[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_December_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(December_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1974[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_December_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(December_2014)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoewe1974">Loewe 1974</a>, p. .

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<li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFQingbo2023" class="citation journal cs1">Qingbo, Duan (January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fjch.2022.25">"Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis"</a>. Journal of Chinese History. 7 (1): 52. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fjch.2022.25">10.1017/jch.2022.25</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251690411">251690411</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaenchen-Helfen1973[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCrUdgzSICxcCpgPA370_369–370]-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaenchen-Helfen1973[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCrUdgzSICxcCpgPA370_369–370]_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaenchen-Helfen1973">Maenchen-Helfen 1973</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CrUdgzSICxcC&pg=PA370">369–370</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> For a frontal view: <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.chinaculture.org/library/2008-01/22/content_77549_2.htm">"Horse Stepping on a Xiongnu Soldier"</a>. en.chinaculture.org.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Han Shu (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju ed) 94B, p. 3824.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentley199337-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBentley199337_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBentley1993">Bentley 1993</a>, p. 37.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaenchen-Helfen1973[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcCpage370_370]-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaenchen-Helfen1973[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcCpage370_370]_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaenchen-Helfen1973">Maenchen-Helfen 1973</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcC/page/370">370</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage37_37–38]-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage37_37–38]_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/37">37–38</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPsarras2015" class="citation book cs1">Psarras, Sophia-Karin (2 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YLD0BQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PR19">Han Material Culture: An Archaeological Analysis and Vessel Typology</a>. <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 19. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-316-27267-1</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankTêng1941-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankTêng1941_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFairbankTêng1941">Fairbank & Têng 1941</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker2002p._104,_item_72-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker2002p._104,_item_72_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, p. 104, item 72.

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<li id="cite_note-:0-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_133-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_133-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_133-4">e</a> <cite id="CITEREFDe_Crespigny1984" class="citation book cs1">De Crespigny, Rafe (1984). Northern frontier: the policies and strategy of the later Han Empire. Faculty of Asian Studies monographs. Canberra: Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-86784-410-8</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage42_42–47]-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage42_42–47]_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/42">42–47</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGumilev_L.N." class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gumilev L.N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/HPH/hph15.htm">"Ch. 15"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/HPH/">История народа Хунну</a> [History of Hun People] (in Russian). Moscow. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090629204641/http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/HPH/">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-06-29.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHyun_Jim_Kim2015" class="citation book cs1">Hyun Jim Kim (2015). "2 The So-called 'Two-Hundred year Interlude'". The Huns. Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-317-34090-4</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage54_54]-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage54_54]_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/54">54</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFang1958" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Fang_Xuanling" title="Fang Xuanling">Fang, Xuanling</a> (1958). Jìnshū <bdi lang="zh">晉書</bdi> [<a href="Book_of_Jin" title="Book of Jin">Book of Jin</a>] (in Chinese). Beijing: <a href="Commercial_Press" title="Commercial Press">Commercial Press</a>.</cite> Vol. 97

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_一_屠各〉-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_一_屠各〉_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_一_屠各〉_140-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTang2010">Tang 2010</a>, ch.〈魏晋杂胡考一屠各〉.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage56_56–57]-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage56_56–57]_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/56">56–57</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage57_57–58]-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970[httpsarchiveorgdetailsempireofsteppesh00profpage57_57–58]_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/57">57–58</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_四_乌丸〉-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_四_乌丸〉_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTang2010">Tang 2010</a>, ch.〈魏晋杂胡考四乌丸〉.

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<li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china.org.cn/english/travel/45103.htm">Sand-covered Hun City Unearthed</a>, <a href="China" title="China">CN</a>: China</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geographic.hu/index.php?act=napi&id=5207">National Geographic</a> (online ed.)</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFObrusánszky2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Obrusánszky, Borbála (10 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.federatio.org/as/AS_0003.pdf">"Hunok Kínában"</a> [Huns in China] (PDF). Amsterdam Studies (in Hungarian) (3). <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1873-3042">1873-3042</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130718081823/http://www.federatio.org/as/AS_0003.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2013-07-18. Retrieved 2008-08-18.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZhou1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhou, Yiliang (June 1997). "〈北朝的民族問題與民族政策〉". 《魏晋南北朝史论集》 (in Chinese). Beijing: Beijing University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-7-301-03191-9</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_二_卢水胡〉-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETang2010ch.〈魏晋杂胡考_二_卢水胡〉_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTang2010">Tang 2010</a>, ch.〈魏晋杂胡考二卢水胡〉.

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<li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBell2000" class="citation book cs1">Bell, Alexander Peter (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=77hHrXX4COgC&pg=PA107">Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China</a>. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 107. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-8258-5134-7</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWhitfieldWhitfieldAgnew2015" class="citation book cs1">Whitfield, Roderick; Whitfield, Susan; Agnew, Neville (15 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EWmmCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55">Cave Temples of Mogao at Dunhuang: Art History on the Silk Road: Second Edition</a>. Getty Publications. p. 55. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-60606-445-0</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarfield1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarfield1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarfield1989">Barfield 1989</a>, p. .

</li>

<li id="cite_note-JLEE-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JLEE_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JLEE_152-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JLEE_152-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JLEE_152-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFLeeMillerBayarsaikhanJohannesson2023" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Juhyeon; Miller, Bryan K.; Bayarsaikhan, Jamsranjav; Johannesson, Erik; Ventresca Miller, Alicia; Warinner, Christina; Jeong, Choongwon (14 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10104459">"Genetic population structure of the Xiongnu Empire at imperial and local scales"</a>. Science Advances. 9 (15): eadf3904. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023SciA....9F3904L">2023SciA....9F3904L</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.adf3904">10.1126/sciadv.adf3904</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2375-2548">2375-2548</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10104459">10104459</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37058560">37058560</a>. <q>"In this genome-wide archaeogenetic study, we find high genetic heterogeneity among late Xiongnu-era individuals at two cemeteries located along the far western frontier of the Xiongnu empire and describe patterns of genetic diversity related to social status. Overall, we find that genetic heterogeneity is highest among lower-status individuals. In particular, the satellite graves surrounding the elite square tombs at TAK show extreme levels of genetic heterogeneity, suggesting that these individuals, who were likely low-ranking retainers, were drawn from diverse parts of the empire. In contrast, the highest-status individuals at the two sites tended to have lower genetic diversity and a high proportion of ancestry deriving from EIA Slab Grave groups, suggesting that these groups may have disproportionately contributed to the ruling elite during the formation of the Xiongnu empire." (...) "a chanyu, or ruler of the empire. Like the elite women at the western frontier, he also had very high eastern Eurasian ancestry (deriving 39.3 and 51.9% from SlabGrave1 and Han_2000BP, respectively, and the rest from Chandman_IA; data file S2C)" (...) "Chandman_IA was representative of people in far western Mongolia associated with Sagly/Uyuk (ca. 500 to 200 BCE), Saka (ca. 900 to 200 BCE), and Pazyryk (ca. 500 to 200 BCE) groups in Siberia and Kazakhstan." (...) "This further suggests the existence of an aristocracy in the Xiongnu empire, that elite status and power was concentrated within specific subsets of the broader population."... Although not conclusive, this suggests that the ANA ancestry source of the Xiongnu-period individuals may not be exclusively traced back to the Slab Grave culture but may also include nearby groups with a similar ANA genetic profile, such as the Xianbei. ... Last, our findings also confirm that the highest-status individuals in this study were females, supporting previous observations that Xiongnu women played an especially prominent role in the expansion and integration of new territories along the empire's frontier.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKim2017" class="citation cs2">Kim, Hyun Jin (29 March 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asianhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-50">"The Xiongnu"</a>, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, Oxford University Press, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277727.013.50">10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.50</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-027772-7</bdi>, retrieved 2024-02-29, <q>There is thus no scholarly consensus on the language that was spoken by the Xiongnu elite</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBettsViczianyJiaCastro2019" class="citation book cs1">Betts, Alison; Vicziany, Marika; Jia, Peter Weiming; Castro, Angelo Andrea Di (19 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxUSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104">The Cultures of Ancient Xinjiang, Western China: Crossroads of the Silk Roads</a>. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 104. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78969-407-9</bdi>. <q>In Noin-Ula (Noyon Uul), Mongolia, the remarkable elite Xiongnu tombs have revealed textiles that are linked to the pictorial tradition of the Yuezhi: the decorative faces closely resemble the <a href="Khalchayan" title="Khalchayan">Khalchayan</a> portraits, while the local ornaments have integrated elements of Graeco-Roman design. These artifacts were most probably manufactured in Bactria</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFrancfort2020" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Henri-Paul_Francfort" title="Henri-Paul Francfort">Francfort, Henri-Paul</a> (1 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/45042820">"Sur quelques vestiges et indices nouveaux de l'hellénisme dans les arts entre la Bactriane et le Gandhāra (130 av. J.-C.-100 apr. J.-C. environ)"</a> [On some vestiges and new indications of Hellenism in the arts between Bactria and Gandhāra (130 BC-100 AD approximately)]. Journal des Savants (in French): 26–27, Fig.8 "Portrait royal diadémé Yuezhi" ("Diademed royal portrait of a Yuezhi").</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPolos'makFrancfortTsepova2015" class="citation journal cs1">Polos'mak, Natalia V.; Francfort, Henri-Paul; Tsepova, Olga (2015). "Nouvelles découvertes de tentures polychromes brodées du début de notre ère dans les "tumuli" n o 20 et n o 31 de Noin-Ula (République de Mongolie)". Arts Asiatiques. 70: 3–32. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Farasi.2015.1881">10.3406/arasi.2015.1881</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-3958">0004-3958</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26358181">26358181</a>. <q>Considered as Yuezhi-Saka or simply Yuezhi, and p.3: "These tapestries were apparently manufactured in Bactria or in Gandhara at the time of the Saka-Yuezhi rule, when these countries were connected with the Parthian empire and the "Hellenized East." They represent groups of men, warriors of high status, and kings and/ or princes, performing rituals of drinking, fighting or taking part in a religious ceremony, a procession leading to an altar with a fire burning on it, and two men engaged in a ritual."</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-LN-157"><a href="#cite_ref-LN_157-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNehru2020" class="citation journal cs1">Nehru, Lolita (14 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/*-COM_215?lang=en">"KHALCHAYAN"</a>. Encyclopaedia Iranica Online. Brill. <q>About "<a href="Khalchayan" title="Khalchayan">Khalchayan</a>", "site of a settlement and palace of the nomad Yuezhi": "Representations of figures with faces closely akin to those of the ruling clan at Khalchayan (PLATE I) have been found in recent times on woollen fragments recovered from a nomad burial site near Lake Baikal in Siberia, Noin Ula, supplementing an earlier discovery at the same site), the pieces dating from the time of Yuezhi/Kushan control of Bactria. Similar faces appeared on woollen fragments found recently in a nomad burial in south-eastern Xinjiang (<a href="Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampula</a>), of about the same date, manufactured probably in Bactria, as were probably also the examples from Noin Ula."</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNeumannWigen2018" class="citation book cs1">Neumann, Iver B.; Wigen, Einar (19 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=huRfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103">The Steppe Tradition in International Relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building 4000 BCE–2017 CE</a>. <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 103. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-108-42079-2</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>While most scholars hold the Xiongnu to have originally had a leadership from a Sogdian kinship line, Kim (2023: 28-29) argues that during their migration west, they seem to have undergone a transformation from having had a Yeniseian leadership, which ruled over various Iranic, Alanic and Turko-Mongol to developing a Turkic royal line.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Beckwith405-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Beckwith405_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, p. 405: "Accordingly, the transcription now read as Hsiung- nu may have been pronounced * Soγdâ, * Soγlâ, * Sak(a)dâ, or even * Skla(C)da, etc."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020_160-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020_160-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Savelyev_&_Jeong,_2020_160-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFSavelyevJeong2020" class="citation journal cs1">Savelyev, Alexander; Jeong, Choongwoon (7 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7612788">"Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West"</a>. Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2 (E20) e20. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fehs.2020.18">10.1017/ehs.2020.18</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0007-772B-4">21.11116/0000-0007-772B-4</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7612788">7612788</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35663512">35663512</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218935871">218935871</a>.</cite> Text was copied from this source, which is available under a <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" class="extiw external" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>. "Such a distribution of Xiongnu words may be an indication that both Turkic and Eastern Iranian-speaking groups were present among the Xiongnu in the earlier period of their history. Etymological analysis shows that some crucial components in the Xiongnu political, economic and cultural package, including dairy pastoralism and elements of state organization, may have been imported by the Eastern Iranians. Arguably, these Iranian-speaking groups were assimilated over time by the predominant Turkic-speaking part of the Xiongnu population. ... The genetic profile of published Xiongnu individuals speaks against the Yeniseian hypothesis, assuming that modern Yeniseian speakers (i.e. Kets) are representative of the ancestry components in the historical Yeniseian speaking groups in southern Siberia. In contrast to the Iron Age populations listed in Table 2, Kets do not have the Iranian-related ancestry component but harbour a strong genetic affinity with Samoyedic-speaking neighbours, such as Selkups (Jeong et al., 2018, 2019)."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker200229-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker200229_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker200229_161-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, p. 29.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-metmuseum.org-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-metmuseum.org_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-metmuseum.org_162-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/44787">"Metropolitan Museum of Art"</a>. www.metmuseum.org.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJin_Kim2015" class="citation book cs1">Jin Kim, Hyun (November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mcf4CgAAQBAJ">The Huns</a>. <a href="Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. pp. 6–17. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-317-34090-4</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004164-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004164_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004164_164-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo2004">Di Cosmo 2004</a>, p. 164.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Vovin-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vovin_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vovin_165-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vovin_165-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFVovin" class="citation journal cs1">Vovin, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1804191">"Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language? Part 2: Vocabulary"</a>. Academia.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGeorg2007" class="citation book cs1">Georg, Stefan (22 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfV5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">A Descriptive Grammar of Ket (Yenisei-Ostyak): Part 1: Introduction, Phonology and Morphology</a>. Global Oriental. p. 16. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-21350-0</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVovin2007" class="citation journal cs1">Vovin, Alexander (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/reader/229243025">"ONCE AGAIN ON THE ETYMOLOGY OF THE TITLE qaγan"</a>. Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia. 12. Kraków. Retrieved 2022-04-06.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFXumeng2020" class="citation thesis cs1">Xumeng, Sun (14 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://prism.ucalgary.ca/bitstream/handle/1880/112546/ucalgary_2020_sun_xumeng.pdf?sequence=3">Identifying the Huns and the Xiongnu (or Not): Multi-Faceted Implications and Difficulties</a> (PDF). PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository (Thesis).</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilson2023" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Joseph A. P. (21 July 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fhumans3030015">"Late Holocene Technology Words in Proto-Athabaskan: Implications for Dene-Yeniseian Culture History"</a>. Humans. 3 (3): 177–192. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fhumans3030015">10.3390/humans3030015</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2673-9461">2673-9461</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBonmannFries2025" class="citation journal cs1">Bonmann, Svenja; Fries, Simon (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968X.12321">"Linguistic Evidence Suggests that Xiōng-nú and Huns Spoke the Same Paleo-Siberian Language"</a>. Transactions of the Philological Society. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968X.12321">10.1111/1467-968X.12321</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-968X">1467-968X</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/59527">"Metropolitan Museum of Art"</a>. www.metmuseum.org.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker2002p._137,_item_109-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker2002p._137,_item_109_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, p. 137, item 109.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWink200260–61-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWink200260–61_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWink2002">Wink 2002</a>, pp. 60–61.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Craig Benjamin (2007, 49), In: Hyun Jin Kim, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fX8YAAAAQBAJ">The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe</a>. <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. 2013. page 176.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Zhou50-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhou50_175-0">^</a> <a href="Linghu_Defen" title="Linghu Defen">Linghu Defen</a> et al., Zhoushu, <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B750">vol. 50</a> quote: "突厥者，蓋匈奴之別種，姓阿史那氏。"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Beishi <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7099#%E7%AA%81%E5%8E%A5">"vol. 99 - section Tujue"</a> quote: "突厥者，其先居西海之右，獨為部落，蓋匈奴之別種也。" translation: "The Tujue, their ancestors dwelt on the right bank of the Western Sea; a lone tribe, probably a separate branch of the Xiongnu"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Golden, Peter B. (August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326609440_The_Ethnogonic_Tales_of_the_Turks">"The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks"</a>. The Medieval History Journal, 21 (2): p. 298 of 291–327, fn. 36. quote: "'Western Sea' (xi hai 西海) has many possible meanings designating different bodies of water from the <a href="Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>, <a href="Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian</a> and <a href="Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral</a> Seas to <a href="Qinghai_Lake" title="Qinghai Lake">Kuku-nor</a>. In the Sui era (581–618) it was viewed as being near <a href="Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> (Sinor, 'Legendary Origin': 226). Taşağıl, Gök-Türkler, vol. 1: 95, n. 553 identies it with <a href="Ruo_Shui" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruo Shui">Etsin-Gol</a>, which is more likely."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-tongdian197-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tongdian197_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tongdian197_178-1">b</a> <a href="Du_You" title="Du You">Du You</a>, Tongdian <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E5%85%B8/%E5%8D%B7197">vol. 197</a> quote: "突厥之先，平涼今平涼郡雜胡也，蓋匈奴之別種，姓阿史那氏。"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Xin Tangshu, <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7215%E4%B8%8A">vol. 215A</a>. "突厥阿史那氏, 蓋古匈奴北部也." "The Ashina family of the Turk probably were the northern tribes of the ancient Xiongnu." quoted and translated in Xu (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/19205">Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan</a>, University of Helsinki, 2005

</li>

<li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <a href="Wei_Zheng" title="Wei Zheng">Wei Zheng</a> et al., Suishu, <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%9A%8B%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B784#%E7%AA%81%E5%8E%A5">vol. 84</a> quote: "突厥之先，平涼雜胡也，姓阿史那氏。"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Zhoushu, "vol. 50" "或云突厥之先出於索國，在匈奴之北。"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Beishi "vol. 99 - section Tujue" quote: "又曰突厥之先，出於索國，在匈奴之北。"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden1992155-183">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGolden1992155_183-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGolden1992155_183-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGolden1992">Golden 1992</a>, p. 155.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a href="Wei_Shou" title="Wei Shou">Wei Shou</a> et al., <a href="Book_of_Wei" title="Book of Wei">Book of Wei</a> <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7103#%E9%AB%98%E8%BB%8A">vol. 103 - section Gaoche</a> quote: "高車，蓋古赤狄之餘種也，初號為狄歷，北方以為勑勒，諸夏以為高車、丁零。其語略與匈奴同而時有小異，或云其先匈奴之甥也。其種有狄氏、袁紇氏、斛律氏、解批氏、護骨氏、異奇斤氏。" translation: "The Gaoche are probably remnants of the ancient Red <a href="Beidi" title="Beidi">Di</a>. Initially they had been called Dili. Northerners consider them <a href="Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Chile</a>. The <a href="Huaxia" title="Huaxia">various Xia</a> (aka Chinese) consider them Gaoche <a href="Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a> (High-Cart Dingling). Their language, in brief, and Xiongnu [language] are the same yet occasionally there are small differences. Some say that they [Gaoche] are the sororal nephews/sons-in-laws of the Xiongnu of yore. Their tribes (種) are Di, Yuanhe (aka <a href="Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghurs</a>), Hulu, Jiepi, Hugu, Yiqijin."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Xin Tangshu <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7217%E4%B8%8A">vol 217A - Huihu</a> quote: "回紇，其先匈奴也，俗多乘高輪車，元魏時亦號高車部，或曰敕勒，訛為鐵勒。" translation: "Huihe, their ancestors were the Xiongnu; because they customarily drove carts with high-wheels and many spokes, in <a href="Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Yuan Wei</a>'s they were also called Gaoche (High-Cart), or also called Chile, mistakenly rendered as <a href="Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tiele</a>."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Weishu, "vol. 102 <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7102#%E7%83%8F%E5%AD%AB-%E7%96%8F%E5%8B%92-%E6%82%85%E8%88%AC">Wusun, Shule, & Yueban</a>" quote: "悅般國，…… 其先，匈奴北單于之部落也。…… 其風俗言語與高車同"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Jinshu <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%99%89%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7097#%E5%8C%88%E5%A5%B4">vol. 97 Four Barbarians - Xiongnu</a>"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="Yuanhe_Maps_and_Records_of_Prefectures_and_Counties" title="Yuanhe Maps and Records of Prefectures and Counties">Yuanhe Maps and Records of Prefectures and Counties</a> vol. 4 quote: "北人呼駮馬為賀蘭"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Du You. Tongdian. <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E5%85%B8/%E5%8D%B7200#%E9%A7%AE%E9%A6%AC">Vol. 200</a>. "突厥謂駮馬為曷剌，亦名曷剌國。"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lee2016p105-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee2016p105_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee2016p105_190-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFLee2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Joo-Yup (2016). "The Historical Meaning of the Term Turk and the Nature of the Turkic Identity of the Chinggisid and Timurid Elites in Post-Mongol Central Asia". Central Asiatic Journal. 59 (1–2): 105.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.lacma.org/node/226318">"Belt Buckle LACMA Collections"</a>. collections.lacma.org.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker2002pp._30,_110,_item_81-192"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker2002pp._30,_110,_item_81_192-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, pp. 30, 110, item 81.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSoBunker1995" class="citation book cs1">So, Jenny F.; Bunker, Emma C. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ia601307.us.archive.org/28/items/tradersraiderson00soje/tradersraiderson00soje.pdf">Traders and raiders on China's northern frontier: 19 November 1995 - 2 September 1996, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery</a> (PDF). Seattle: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Inst. [u.a.] pp. 90–91, item 2. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-295-97473-6</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Ts. Baasansuren "The scholar who showed the true Mongolia to the world", Summer 2010 vol.6 (14) Mongolica, pp.40

</li>

<li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSinor1990" class="citation book cs1">Sinor, Denis (1990). Aspects of Altaic Civilization III. p. .</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-info-196"><a href="#cite_ref-info_196-0">^</a> N.Bichurin "Collection of information on the peoples who inhabited Central Asia in ancient times", 1950, p. 227

</li>

<li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171118181857/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~earlychina/docs/2008/ec25_pulleyblank.pdf">"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organization of the Zhou Polity"</a>, Early China. p. 20

</li>

<li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <a href="Wei_Shou" title="Wei Shou">Wei Shou</a>. Book of Wei. vol. 91 "蠕蠕，東胡之苗裔也，姓郁久閭氏" tr. "Rúrú, offsprings of Dōnghú, surnamed Yùjiŭlǘ"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Liangshu <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%A2%81%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B754#%E8%8A%AE%E8%8A%AE%E5%9C%8B">Vol. 54</a> txt: "芮芮國，蓋匈奴別種。" tr: "Ruìruì state, possibly a Xiongnu's separate branch"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Golden, Peter B. "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran", in The Steppe Lands and the World beyond Them. Ed. Curta, Maleon. Iași (2013). pp. 54-55

</li>

<li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="Liu_Xu" title="Liu Xu">Liu Xu</a> et al. Old Book of Tang <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7199%E4%B8%8B#%E5%AE%A4%E9%9F%8B">"vol. 199 section: Shiwei"</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Elina-Qian_2005_p._173-178-202">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elina-Qian_2005_p._173-178_202-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elina-Qian_2005_p._173-178_202-1">b</a> Xu Elina-Qian (2005). Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan. University of Helsinki. p. 173-178

</li>

<li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Xu Elina-Qian (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/19205">Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan</a>. University of Helsinki. p. 99. quote: "According to Gai Zhiyong's study, Jishou is identical with Qishou, the earliest ancestor of the Khitan; and Shihuai is identical to Tanshihuai, the Xianbei supreme chief in the period of the Eastern Han (25-220). Therefore, from the sentence "His ancestor was Jish[ou] who was derived from Shihuai" in the above inscription, it can be simply seen that the Khitan originated from the Xianbei. Since the excavated inscription on memorial tablet can be regarded as a firsthand historical source, this piece of information is quite reliable."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <a href="Xue_Juzheng" title="Xue Juzheng">Xue Juzheng</a> et al. <a href="Old_History_of_the_Five_Dynasties" title="Old History of the Five Dynasties">Old History of the Five Dynasties</a> <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E4%BA%94%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7137">vol. 137</a> quote: "契丹者，古匈奴之種也。" translation: "The Khitans, a kind of Xiongnu of yore."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Schönig, Claus. (27 January 2006) "Turko-Mongolic relations" in Janhunen (ed.) The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. p. 393.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Shimunek, Andrew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37176756">"Early Serbi-Mongolic-Tungusic lexical contact: Jurchen numerals from the 室韦 Shirwi (Shih-wei) in North China"</a>. Philology of the Grasslands: Essays in Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic Studies, Edited by Ákos Bertalan Apatóczky et al. (Leiden: Brill). Retrieved 22 September 2019. quote: "Asdemonstrated by Ratchnevsky (1966: 231), the Shirwi confederation was a multiethnic, multilingual confederation of Tungusic-speaking Mo-ho 靺鞨 people (i.e. ancestors of the Jurchen), the Meng-wa 蒙瓦 ~ Meng-wu 蒙兀, whom Pelliot (1928) and others have shown were Proto-Mongolic speakers, and other groups. The dominant group among the Shirwi undoubtedly were ethnolinguistic descendants of the Serbi (鮮卑 Hsien-pei), and spoke a language closely related to Kitan and more distantly related to Mongolic."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Shiji <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7110">"vol. 110: Account of the Xiongnu"</a> quote: "東胡初輕冒頓，不爲備。及冒頓以兵至，擊，大破滅東胡王，而虜其民人及畜產。" translation: "Initially the Donghu despised Modun and were unprepared. So Modun arrived with his troops, attacked, routed [the Donghu] and killed Donghu king; then [Modun] captured his people as well as livestock."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Book of Later Han. <a class="external text external" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%BE%8C%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B790#%E9%AE%AE%E5%8D%91">"Vol. 90 section Xianbei"</a>. text: "鮮卑者, 亦東胡之支也, 别依鮮卑山, 故因為號焉. 漢初, 亦為冒頓所破, 遠竄遼東塞." Xu (2005:24)'s translation: "The Xianbei who were a branch of the Donghu, relied upon the Xianbei Mountains. Therefore, they were called the Xianbei. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), (they) were defeated by Maodun, and then fled in disorder to Liaodong beyond the northern border of China Proper"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Xu Elina-Qian (2005). Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan. University of Helsinki. p. 24-25

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Howorth-210"><a href="#cite_ref-Howorth_210-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHoworth" class="citation book cs1">Howorth, Henry H. (Henry Hoyle). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/p1historyofmongo02howouoft">History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th century</a>. London : Longmans, Green – via Internet Archive.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/archaeology/mongolia/xiongnu/xiongnuarchhist/sunandmoon_th.jpg">"Sun and Moon"</a> (JPG). depts.washington.edu.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/archaeology/mongolia/xiongnu/xiongnuarchhist/xiongnuarchhist.html">"Xiongnu Archaeology"</a>. depts.washington.edu.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2086480/Elite_Xiongnu_Burials_at_the_Periphery_Tomb_Complexes_at_Takhiltyn_Khotgor_Mongolian_Altai_Miller_et_al._2009_">Elite Xiongnu Burials at the Periphery</a> (Miller et al. 2009)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Choongwon-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Choongwon_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Choongwon_214-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Choongwon_214-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Choongwon_214-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFJeongWangWilkinTaylor2020" class="citation journal cs1">Jeong, Choongwon; Wang, Ke; Wilkin, Shevan; Taylor, William Timothy Treal; Miller, Bryan K.; Bemmann, Jan H.; Stahl, Raphaela; Chiovelli, Chelsea; Knolle, Florian; Ulziibayar, Sodnom; Khatanbaatar, Dorjpurev (12 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836">"A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe"</a>. Cell. 183 (4): 890–904.e29. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2020.10.015">10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0092-8674">0092-8674</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836">7664836</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33157037">33157037</a>.</cite> Text was copied from this source, which is available under a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004165-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004165_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDi_Cosmo2004">Di Cosmo 2004</a>, p. 165.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Hyun Jin Kim, The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-107-00906-6</bdi>. Cambridge University Press. 2013. page 31.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Zhou502-217"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhou502_217-0">^</a> <a href="Linghu_Defen" title="Linghu Defen">Linghu Defen</a> et al., <a href="Book_of_Zhou" title="Book of Zhou">Book of Zhou</a>, <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E5%91%A8%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B750" class="extiw external" title="zh:s:周書/卷50">Vol. 50.</a> (in Chinese)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Northern992-218"><a href="#cite_ref-Northern992_218-0">^</a> Li Yanshou (李延寿), <a href="History_of_the_Northern_Dynasties" title="History of the Northern Dynasties">History of the Northern Dynasties</a>, <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E5%8C%97%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7099" class="extiw external" title="zh:s:北史/卷099">Vol. 99.</a> (in Chinese)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristian1998249-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristian1998249_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChristian1998">Christian 1998</a>, p. 249.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sui84-220"><a href="#cite_ref-Sui84_220-0">^</a> <a href="Wei_Zheng" title="Wei Zheng">Wei Zheng</a> et al., <a href="Book_of_Sui" title="Book of Sui">Book of Sui</a>, <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E9%9A%8B%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B784" class="extiw external" title="zh:s:隋書/卷84">Vol. 84.</a> (in Chinese)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tong197-221"><a href="#cite_ref-Tong197_221-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDu1988" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Du_You" title="Du You">Du, You</a> (1988). <bdi lang="zh">辺防13 北狄4 突厥上</bdi>. <bdi lang="zh">《通典》</bdi> [<a href="Tongdian" title="Tongdian">Tongdian</a>] (in Simplified Chinese). Vol. 197. Beijing: <a href="Zhonghua_Book_Company" title="Zhonghua Book Company">Zhonghua Book Company</a>. p. 5401. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-7-101-00258-4</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ethnic-222"><a href="#cite_ref-ethnic_222-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180914203456/http://rudocs.exdat.com/docs/index-128726.html">"Об эт нической принадлежности Хунну"</a>. rudocs.exdat.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rudocs.exdat.com/docs/index-128726.html">the original</a> on 2018-09-14. Retrieved 2014-06-21.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJenkins1967" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC">De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus</a>. Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae (New, revised ed.). Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. p. 65. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-88402-021-9</bdi>. Retrieved 2013-08-28.</cite> According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing in his <a href="De_Administrando_Imperio" title="De Administrando Imperio">De Administrando Imperio</a> (ca. 950 AD) "Patzinakia, the <a href="Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pecheneg realm</a>, stretches west as far as the <a href="Siret_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Siret River">Siret River</a> (or even the <a href="Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Eastern Carpathian Mountains</a>), and is four days distant from Tourkia (i.e. Hungary)."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-PrinzingSalamon1999-224"><a href="#cite_ref-PrinzingSalamon1999_224-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGünter_PrinzingMaciej_Salamon1999" class="citation book cs1">Günter Prinzing; Maciej Salamon (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uZDgivj7_RAC&pg=PA46">Byzanz und Ostmitteleuropa 950–1453: Beiträge zu einer table-ronde des XIX. International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Copenhagen 1996</a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 46. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-447-04146-1</bdi>. Retrieved 2013-02-09.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Howorth2008-225"><a href="#cite_ref-Howorth2008_225-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHenry_Hoyle_Howorth2008" class="citation book cs1">Henry Hoyle Howorth (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hFc4mwsHZ7IC&pg=PA3">History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: The So-called Tartars of Russia and Central Asia</a>. Cosimo, Inc. p. 3. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-60520-134-4</bdi>. Retrieved 2013-06-15.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSinor1990">Sinor (1990)</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tursun-227"><a href="#cite_ref-Tursun_227-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNabijan_Tursun2023" class="citation journal cs1">Nabijan Tursun (5 July 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3-1e9c-be1e-2c24-a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=105630">"The Formation of Modern Uyghur Historiography and Competing Perspectives toward Uyghur History"</a>. The China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly. 6 (3): 87–100.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-xinjiang-228"><a href="#cite_ref-xinjiang_228-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJames_A._MillwardPeter_C._Perdue2004" class="citation book cs1">James A. Millward & Peter C. Perdue (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA40">"Chapter 2: Political and Cultural History of the Xinjiang Region through the Late Nineteenth Century"</a>. In S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. M. E. Sharpe. pp. 40–41. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7656-1318-9</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

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<li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMiller2011" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Bryan (2011). Bemmann, Jan (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130729150654/http://www.vfgarch.uni-bonn.de/veroeffentlichungen/bonn-bonn-contributions-to-asian-archaeology/bcaa-5-toc">Xiongnu Archaeology</a>. Bonn: Vor- und Fruhgeschichtliche Archaeologie Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat Bonn. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-936490-14-5</bdi>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vfgarch.uni-bonn.de/veroeffentlichungen/bonn-bonn-contributions-to-asian-archaeology/bcaa-5-toc">the original</a> on 2013-07-29. Retrieved 2012-12-13.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMiller2011" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Bryan (2011). Jan Bemmann (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130729150654/http://www.vfgarch.uni-bonn.de/veroeffentlichungen/bonn-bonn-contributions-to-asian-archaeology/bcaa-5-toc">Xiongnu Archaeology</a>. Bonn: Vor- und Fruhgeschichtliche Archaologie Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat Bonn. p. 23. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-936490-14-5</bdi>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vfgarch.uni-bonn.de/veroeffentlichungen/bonn-bonn-contributions-to-asian-archaeology/bcaa-5-toc">the original</a> on 2013-07-29. Retrieved 2012-12-13.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLeeKuang2017" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22105018-12340089">"A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples"</a>. Inner Asia. 19 (2): 197–239. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22105018-12340089">10.1163/22105018-12340089</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1464-8172">1464-8172</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165623743">165623743</a>.</cite> "Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA, which is maternally inherited, shows that the Xiongnu remains from this Egyin Gol necropolis consist mainly of Asian lineages (89%). West Eurasian lineages makeup the rest (11%) (Keyser-Tracqui et al. (2003: 258). However, according to a more recent study of ancient human remains from central Mongolia, the Xiongnu population in cen- tral Mongolia possessed a higher frequency of western mitochondrial DNA haplotypes (37.5%) than the Xiongnu from the Egyin Gol necropolis (Rogers 2016: 78)."

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<li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRogersKaestle2022" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers, Leland Liu; Kaestle, Frederika Ann (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.24478">"Analysis of mitochondrial DNA haplogroup frequencies in the population of the slab burial mortuary culture of Mongolia (ca. 1100–300 BCE )"</a>. American Journal of Biological Anthropology. 177 (4): 644–657. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.24478">10.1002/ajpa.24478</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2692-7691">2692-7691</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246508594">246508594</a>.</cite> " The first pattern is that the slab burial mtDNA frequencies are extremely similar to those of the aggregated Xiongnu populations and relatively similar to those of the various Bronze Age Mongolian populations, strongly supporting a population continuity hypothesis for the region over these time periods (Honeychurch, 2013)"

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_8,_Rows_87-88,_94-96-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_8,_Rows_87-88,_94-96_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDamgaard_et_al.2018">Damgaard et al. 2018</a>, Supplementary Table 8, Rows 87-88, 94-96.

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<li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKim_et_al.2010">Kim et al. 2010</a>, p. 429

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<li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogersKaestle2022">Rogers & Kaestle 2022</a>:"While during the slab burial period (ca.1100–300 BCE) eastern patrilines seem to have been dominant, in the Xiongnu period about half of the population had western patrilines with virtually no change to the mtDNA gene pool in east–west terms. If sex bias migration patterns were similar with those found in Europe, this increase of western patrilines would be consistent with aggressive expansion of people with western male ancestry (Batini et al., 2017); however, such a pattern could also be due to a gradual nonaggressive assimilation, such as the practice of marriage alliances associated with an expansion of trade or cultural networks that favored people with western patrilines (Honeychurch, 2013)."

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<li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKangJinWuAo2013" class="citation conference cs1">Kang, L. L.; Jin, T.; Wu, F.; Ao, X.; Wen, S.; Wang, C.; Huang, Y.; Li, X.; Li, H. Y (2013). Y chromosomes of ancient Hunnu people and its implication on the phylogeny of East Asian linguistic families. ASHG 63rd Annual Meeting 22–26 October 2013: Boston. Vol. 2041. American Society of Human Genetics.</cite> (Poster abstracts <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ashg.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/2013-poster-abstracts.pdf">p. 235</a>; 2041F)

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<li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRen_MengWang_Jian_Xin2011" class="citation journal cs1">Ren Meng; Wang Jian Xin (2011). "Knowing the Xiongnu Culture in Eastern Tianshan Mountain from Tomb Heigouliang and Dongheigou Site at the Beginning of Xihan Dynasty". Xibu Kaogu: 252–290.</cite> (Journal: 西部考古 Xibu kaogu [Archaeology of the western regions])

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<li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKim_et_al.2010">Kim et al. 2010</a>, p. 429

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_9,_Rows_20-23-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_9,_Rows_20-23_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDamgaard_et_al.2018">Damgaard et al. 2018</a>, Supplementary Table 9, Rows 20-23.

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<li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKeyserZvénigorosky2020" class="citation journal cs1">Keyser, C.; Zvénigorosky, V.; et al. (2020). "Genetic evidence suggests a sense of family, parity and conquest in the Xiongnu Iron Age nomads of Mongolia". Human Genetics. 140 (2): 349–359. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-020-02209-4">10.1007/s00439-020-02209-4</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32734383">32734383</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220881540">220881540</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJeongWangWilkinErdene2020" class="citation journal cs1">Jeong, Choongwon; Wang, Ke; Wilkin, Shevan; Erdene, Myagmar; Hendy, Jessica; Warinner, Christina (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836">"A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe"</a>. Cell. 183 (4): 890–904. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2020.10.015">10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0007-77BF-D">21.11116/0000-0007-77BF-D</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836">7664836</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33157037">33157037</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLeeKuang2017" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (18 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/inas/19/2/article-p197_197.xml">"A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and y-dna Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples"</a>. Inner Asia. 19 (2): 197–239. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22105018-12340089">10.1163/22105018-12340089</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2210-5018">2210-5018</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeyser-Tracqui_et_al.2006272-264"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeyser-Tracqui_et_al.2006272_264-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeyser-Tracqui_et_al.2006">Keyser-Tracqui et al. 2006</a>, p. 272.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_2,_Rows_28-32-265"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamgaard_et_al.2018Supplementary_Table_2,_Rows_28-32_265-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDamgaard_et_al.2018">Damgaard et al. 2018</a>, Supplementary Table 2, Rows 28-32.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDamgaard_et_al.2018">Damgaard et al. 2018</a>, pp. 371–374: "Principal Component Analyses and D-statistics suggest that the Xiongnu individuals belong to two distinct groups, one being of East Asian origin and the other presenting considerable admixture levels with West Eurasian sources... We find that Central Sakas are accepted as a source for these 'western-admixed' Xiongnu in a single-wave model. In line with this finding, no East Asian gene flow is detected compared to Central Sakas as these form a clade with respect to the East Asian Xiongnu in a D-statistic, and furthermore, cluster closely together in the PCA (Figure 2)... Overall, our data show that the Xiongnu confederation was genetically heterogeneous, and that the Huns emerged following minor male-driven East Asian gene flow into the preceding Sakas that they invaded... As such our results support the contention that the disappearance of the Inner Asian Scythians and Sakas around two thousand years ago was a cultural transition that coincided with the westward migration of the Xiongnu. This Xiongnu invasion also led to the displacement of isolated remnant groups—related to Late Bronze Age pastoralists—that had remained on the south-eastern side of the Tian Shan mountains."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarótiNeparáczkiSchütz2022" class="citation journal cs1">Maróti, Zoltán; Neparáczki, Endre; Schütz, Oszkár (25 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2022.04.093">"The genetic origin of Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians"</a>. <a href="Current_Biology" title="Current Biology">Current Biology</a>. 32 (13): 2858–2870.e7. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022CBio...32E2858M">2022CBio...32E2858M</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2022.04.093">10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.093</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35617951">35617951</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249050620">249050620</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJeong2020" class="citation journal cs1">Jeong, Choongwon (12 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836">"A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe"</a>. Cell. 183 (4): 890–904.e29. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2020.10.015">10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0092-8674">0092-8674</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7664836">7664836</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33157037">33157037</a>. <q>The Xiongnu emerged from the mixing of these populations and those from surrounding regions. By comparison, the Mongols exhibit much higher eastern Eurasian ancestry, resembling present-day Mongolic-speaking populations.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLeeSatoTajimaAmgalantugs2024" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Juhyeon; Sato, Takehiro; Tajima, Atsushi; Amgalantugs, Tsend; Tsogtbaatar, Batmunkh; Nakagome, Shigeki; Miyake, Toshihiko; Shiraishi, Noriyuki; Jeong, Choongwon; Gakuhari, Takashi (1 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/4/1/0004">"Medieval genomes from eastern Mongolia share a stable genetic profile over a millennium"</a>. Human Population Genetics and Genomics. 4 (1): 1–11. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.47248%2Fhpgg2404010004">10.47248/hpgg2404010004</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2770-5005">2770-5005</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/49444">"Metropolitan Museum of Art"</a>. www.metmuseum.org.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker2002136-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker2002136_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, p. 136.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker200230-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker200230_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, p. 30.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker2002pp._29,_101;_item_68-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker2002pp._29,_101;_item_68_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, pp. 29, 101; item 68.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunker2002p._100,_item_67-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunker2002p._100,_item_67_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunker2002">Bunker 2002</a>, p. 100, item 67.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-275">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_275-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFPsarras2003">Psarras 2003</a>, p. .

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003102–103-276">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003102–103_276-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPsarras2003102–103_276-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPsarras2003">Psarras 2003</a>, pp. 102–103.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIshjamts1996p._166,_Fig_5-277"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIshjamts1996p._166,_Fig_5_277-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIshjamts1996">Ishjamts 1996</a>, p. 166, Fig 5.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemattè2006-278"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemattè2006_278-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDemattè2006">Demattè 2006</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIshjamts1996p._166,_Fig_6-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIshjamts1996p._166,_Fig_6_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIshjamts1996">Ishjamts 1996</a>, p. 166, Fig 6.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Book of Han, Vol. 94-I, 匈奴謂天為「撐犁」，謂子為「孤塗」，單于者，廣大之貌也.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-a-281"><a href="#cite_ref-a_281-0">^</a> Александр Берзин, Тибетский буддизм: история и перспективы развития, M., 1992 (Alexandr Berzin, Tibetan Buddhism: History and Future Prospects, Moscow 1992; Буддизм, Л. Л. Абаева, М., Республика, 1991 (Buddhism, L.L. Abaeva, Respublika, Moscow 1991)

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div>

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<li><a href="Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> et al., <a href="Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a>, esp. <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7110" class="extiw external" title="zh:s:史記/卷110">vol. 110</a>.</li></ul>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFKeyser-Tracqui_et_al.2006" class="citation journal cs1">Keyser-Tracqui, Christine; et al. (October 2006). "Population origins in Mongolia: genetic structure analysis of ancient and modern DNA". <a href="American_Journal_of_Physical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Physical Anthropology">American Journal of Physical Anthropology</a>. 131 (2). <a href="American_Association_of_Physical_Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association of Physical Anthropologists">American Association of Physical Anthropologists</a>: 272–281. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.20429">10.1002/ajpa.20429</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16596591">16596591</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKim_et_al.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Kim, Kijeong; et al. (July 2010). "A western Eurasian male is found in 2000-year-old elite Xiongnu cemetery in Northeast Mongolia". <a href="American_Journal_of_Physical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Physical Anthropology">American Journal of Physical Anthropology</a>. 142 (3). <a href="American_Association_of_Physical_Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association of Physical Anthropologists">American Association of Physical Anthropologists</a>: 429–440. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.21242">10.1002/ajpa.21242</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20091844">20091844</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLoewe1974" class="citation book cs1">Loewe, Michael (1974). "The campaigns of Han Wu-ti". In Kierman, Frank A. Jr.; Fairbank, John K. (eds.). Chinese ways in warfare. Harvard Univ. Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMaenchen-Helfen1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Otto_J._Maenchen-Helfen" title="Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen">Maenchen-Helfen, Otto</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcC/page/n5">The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture</a> (1st ed.). Berkeley: <a href="University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-520-01596-7</bdi>. <a href="LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/79094985">79094985</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/801712">801712</a>. Retrieved 2025-06-02.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPearce2023" class="citation book cs1">Pearce, Scott (2023). Northern Wei (386-534): A New Form of Empire in East Asia. Oxford University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPsarras2003" class="citation journal cs1">Psarras, Sophia-Karin (2003). "Han and Xiongnu: A Reexamination of Cultural and Political Relations". Monumenta Serica. 51: 55–236. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.2003.11731391">10.1080/02549948.2003.11731391</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40727370">40727370</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156676644">156676644</a>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin G.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171118181857/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~earlychina/docs/2008/ec25_pulleyblank.pdf">"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organization of the Zhou Polity"</a> (PDF). Early China. 25 (25): 1–27. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0362502800004259">10.1017/S0362502800004259</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162159081">162159081</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dartmouth.edu/~earlychina/docs/2008/ec25_pulleyblank.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2017-11-18. Retrieved 2017-12-01.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchuessler2014" class="citation journal cs1">Schuessler, Axel (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210607101617/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Sino-Tibetan%20Linguistics.pdf">"Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words"</a> (PDF). Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series (53). Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Sino-Tibetan%20Linguistics.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2021-06-07. Retrieved 2021-12-27.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFState_Hermitage_Museum2007" class="citation web cs1">State Hermitage Museum (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070622035146/http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_7.html">"Prehistoric Art - Early Nomads of the Altaic Region"</a>. The Hermitage Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_7.html">the original</a> on 2007-06-22. Retrieved 2007-07-31.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTang2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tang, Changru (December 2010). <bdi lang="zh">《魏晋南北朝史论丛》</bdi> (in Chinese). Beijing: <a href="Commercial_Press" title="Commercial Press">Commercial Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-7-100-07451-3</bdi>.</cite> Chapters:

<ul><li>〈魏晋杂胡考一屠各〉</li>

<li>〈魏晋杂胡考四乌丸〉</li>

<li>〈魏晋杂胡考二卢水胡〉</li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWhitehouse2016" class="citation book cs1">Whitehouse, Ruth, ed. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TDJdDwAAQBAJ">Macmillan Dictionary of Archaeology</a>. <a href="Macmillan_Education" title="Macmillan Education">Macmillan Education</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-349-07589-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWink2002" class="citation book cs1">Wink, A. (2002). Al-Hind: making of the Indo-Islamic World. Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-391-04174-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYap2009" class="citation book cs1">Yap, Joseph P. (2009). Wars with the Xiongnu: A translation from Zizhi tongjian. AuthorHouse. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4490-0604-4</bdi>.</cite> AuthorHouse.</li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li>Davydova, Anthonina. The Ivolga archaeological complex. Part 1. The Ivolga fortress. In: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, vol. 1. St Petersburg, 1995.</li>

<li>Davydova, Anthonina. The Ivolga archaeological complex. Part 2. The Ivolga cemetery. In: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, vol. 2. St Petersburg, 1996.</li>

<li>(in Russian) Davydova, Anthonina & Minyaev Sergey. The complex of archaeological sites near Dureny village. In: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, vol. 5. St Petersburg, 2003.</li>

<li>Davydova, Anthonina & Minyaev Sergey. The Xiongnu Decorative bronzes. In: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, vol. 6. St Petersburg, 2003.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKeyser-Tracqui_et_al.2003" class="citation journal cs1">Keyser-Tracqui, Christine; et al. (July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180365">"Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of a 2,000-Year-Old Necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia"</a>. <a href="American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics" title="American Journal of Human Genetics">American Journal of Human Genetics</a>. 73 (2). <a href="Cell_Press" title="Cell Press">Cell Press</a>: 247–260. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F377005">10.1086/377005</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180365">1180365</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12858290">12858290</a>.</cite></li>

<li>(in Hungarian) Helimski, Eugen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090225053205/http://ludens.elte.hu/~briseis/finnugor/egyestort/szamojed.html">"A szamojéd népek vázlatos története"</a> (Short History of the Samoyedic peoples). In: The History of the Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic Peoples. 2000, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHenning1948" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Walter_Bruno_Henning" title="Walter Bruno Henning">Henning, W. B.</a> (1948). "The date of the Sogdian ancient letters". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 12 (3–4): 601–615. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00083178">10.1017/S0041977X00083178</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/608717">608717</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161867825">161867825</a>.</cite></li>

<li>(in Russian) Kiuner (Kjuner, Küner) [Кюнер], N.V. 1961. Китайские известия о народах Южной Сибири, Центральной Азии и Дальнего Востока (Chinese reports about peoples of Southern Siberia, Central Asia, and Far East). Moscow.</li>

<li>(in Russian) Klyashtorny S.G. [Кляшторный С.Г.] 1964. Древнетюркские рунические памятники как источник по истории Средней Азии. (Ancient Türkic runiform monuments as a source for the history of Central Asia). Moscow: Nauka.</li>

<li>(in Russian) Kradin , Nikolay. 2002. "Hun Empire". Acad. 2nd ed., updated and added., Moscow: Logos, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>5-94010-124-0</bdi></li>

<li>Kradin, Nikolay. 2005. Social and Economic Structure of the Xiongnu of the Trans-Baikal Region. <a href="Archaeology%2C_Ethnology_%26_Anthropology_of_Eurasia" title="Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia">Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia</a>, No 1 (21), p. 79–86.</li>

<li>Kradin, Nikolay. 2012. New Approaches and Challenges for the Xiongnu Studies. In: Xiongnu and its eastward Neighbours. Seoul, p. 35–51.</li>

<li>(in German) Liu Mau-tsai. 1958. Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichte der Ost-Türken (T'u-küe). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey. On the origin of the Xiongnu // Bulletin of International association for the study of the culture of Central Asia, UNESCO. Moscow, 1985, No. 9.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey. News of Xiongnu Archaeology // Das Altertum, vol. 35. Berlin, 1989.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey. "Niche Grave Burials of the Xiong-nu Period in Central Asia", Information Bulletin, Inter-national Association for the Cultures of Central Asia 17 (1990): 91–99.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey. The excavation of Xiongnu Sites in the Buryatia Republic// Orientations, vol. 26, n. 10, Hong Kong, November 1995.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey. Les Xiongnu// Dossiers d' archaeologie, # 212. Paris 1996.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey. Archaeologie des Xiongnu en Russie: nouvelles decouvertes et quelques Problemes. In: Arts Asiatiques, tome 51, Paris, 1996.</li>

<li>(in Russian) Minyaev, Sergey. Derestuj cemetery. In: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, vol. 3. St-Petersburg, 1998.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey. The origins of the "Geometric Style" in Hsiungnu art // BAR International series 890. London, 2000.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey. Art and archeology of the Xiongnu: new discoveries in Russia. In: Circle of Iner Asia Art, Newsletter, Issue 14, December 2001, pp. 3–9</li>

<li>(in Russian) Minyaev, Sergey. The Xiongnu cultural complex: location and chronology. In: Ancient and Middle Age History of Eastern Asia. Vladivostok, 2001, pp. 295–305.</li>

<li>Miniaev, Sergey & Elikhina, Julia. On the chronology of the Noyon Uul barrows. The Silk Road 7 (2009): 21–30.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey & Sakharovskaja, Lidya. Investigation of a Xiongnu Royal Tomb in the Tsaraam valley, part 1. In: Newsletters of the Silk Road Foundation, vol. 4, no.1, 2006.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey & Sakharovskaja, Lidya. Investigation of a Xiongnu Royal Tomb in the Tsaraam valley, part 2. In: Newsletters of the Silk Road Foundation, vol. 5, no.1, 2007.</li>

<li>Minyaev, Sergey & Smolarsky Phillipe. Art of the Steppes. Brussels, Foundation Richard Liu, 2002.</li>

<li>(in Hungarian) Obrusánszky, Borbála. August 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transoxiana.org/14/obrusanszky_tongwan_city.html">Tongwancheng, city of the southern Huns</a>. Transoxiana, August 2009, 14. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1666-7050">1666-7050</a>.</li>

<li>(in French) Petkovski, Elizabet. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060622050334/http://eprints-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/496/">Polymorphismes ponctuels de séquence et identification génétique: étude par spectrométrie de masse MALDI-TOF</a>. Strasbourg: Université Louis Pasteur. Dissertation</li>

<li>(in Russian) Potapov, L.P. 1969. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web1.kunstkamera.ru/siberia/Texts/Potapov-Etn.sostav.doc">Этнический состав и происхождение алтайцев</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120420224645/http://web1.kunstkamera.ru/siberia/Texts/Potapov-Etn.sostav.doc">Archived</a> 20 April 2012 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Etnicheskii sostav i proiskhozhdenie altaitsev, Ethnic composition and origins of the Altaians). Leningrad: Nauka. Facsimile in Microsoft Word format.</li>

<li>(in Russian) Potapov, L.P. [Потапов, Л.П.] 1966. Этнионим Теле и Алтайцы. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716153114/http://www.orientalstudies.ru/rus/index.php?option=com_publications&Itemid=75&pub=564">Тюркологический сборник</a> (The ethnonym "Tele" and the Altaians. Turcologica): 233–240. Moscow: Nauka.</li>

<li>(in Russian) Talko-Gryntsevich, Julian. 1999. Paleo-Ethnology of Trans-Baikal area. In: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, vol. 4. St Petersburg.</li>

<li>Taskin V.S. [Таскин В.С.]. 1984. Материалы по истории древних кочевых народов группы Дунху (Materials on the history of the ancient nomadic peoples of the Dunhu group). Moscow.</li>

<li>Brosseder, Ursula, and Bryan Miller. Xiongnu Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Perspectives of the First Steppe Empire in Inner Asia. Bonn: Freiburger Graphische Betriebe- Freiburg, 2011.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCsányi2008" class="citation journal cs1">Csányi, B.; et al. (July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/12724604">"Y-Chromosome Analysis of Ancient Hungarian and Two Modern Hungarian-Speaking Populations from the Carpathian Basin"</a>. Annals of Human Genetics. 72 (4): 519–534. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-1809.2008.00440.x">10.1111/j.1469-1809.2008.00440.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18373723">18373723</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13217908">13217908</a>. Retrieved 2022-04-06.</cite></li>

<li>Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4392-2134-1</bdi>. (Especially pp. 69–74)</li>

<li>Houle, J. and L.G. Broderick (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160405150721/https://www.mendeley.com/research/settlement-patterns-domestic-economy-xiongnu-khanui-valley-mongolia/">"Settlement Patterns and Domestic Economy of the Xiongnu in Khanui Valley, Mongolia"</a>, 137–152. In Xiongnu Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Perspectives of the First Steppe Empire in Inner Asia.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMalloryMair2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">Mallory, J. P.</a>; <a href="Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (2000), The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, London: Thames & Hudson</cite>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMiller2014" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Bryan K. (2014). "Xiongnu "Kings" and the Political Order of the Steppe Empire". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 57 (1): 1–43. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685209-12341340">10.1163/15685209-12341340</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNeparáczki_et_al.2019" class="citation journal cs1">Neparáczki, Endre; et al. (12 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6851379">"Y-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin"</a>. <a href="Scientific_Reports" title="Scientific Reports">Scientific Reports</a>. 9 (16569). <a href="Nature_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature Research">Nature Research</a>: 16569. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...916569N">2019NatSR...916569N</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-53105-5">10.1038/s41598-019-53105-5</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6851379">6851379</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31719606">31719606</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPritsak1959" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pritsak, O. (1959). "XUN Der Volksname der Hsiung-nu". Central Asiatic Journal (in German). 5: 27–34.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSims-Williams2004" class="citation web cs1">Sims-Williams, Nicholas (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/sogdlet.html">"The Sogdian ancient letters. Letters 1, 2, 3, and 5 translated into English"</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFToh2005" class="citation journal cs1">Toh, Hoong Teik (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp146_xiongnu.pdf">"The -yu Ending in Xiongnu, Xianbei, and Gaoju Onomastica"</a> (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 146.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTouchette2003" class="citation web cs1">Touchette, Nancy (25 July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060516040010/http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/07_03/ancient.shtml">"Ancient DNA Tells Tales from the Grave"</a>. Genome News Network. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/07_03/ancient.shtml">the original</a> on 2006-05-16.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVaissière2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vaissière (2005). "Huns et Xiongnu". Central Asiatic Journal (in French). 49 (1): 3–26.</cite></li>

<li>Yap, Joseph P, (2019). The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-7928-2915-4</bdi></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZhangDong2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">Zhang, Bibo; Dong, Guoyao (2001). <bdi lang="zh">中国古代北方民族文化史</bdi> [Cultural History of Ancient Northern Ethnic Groups in China]. Harbin: Heilongjiang People's Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-7-207-03325-3</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Xiongnu" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Xiongnu" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hsiung-nu" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Hsiung-nu">Hsiung-nu</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Hiung-nu" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hiung-nu">Hiung-nu</a>".</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/xiongnu/xiongnu.html">Material Culture presented by University of Washington</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130208080824/http://www.experiencefestival.com/xiongnu_-_origins_and_early_history_of_the_xiongnu#.UMi9NoNfCw1">Encyclopedic Archive on Xiongnu</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319062455/http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Xiong_Nu_Empire">The Xiongnu Empire</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol4num1/srnewsletter_v4n1.pdf">The Silk Road Volume 4 Number 1</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/vol9/srjournal_v9.pdf">The Silk Road Volume 9</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/hu/fig_25.html">Gold Headdress from Aluchaideng</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/18.33.1">Belt buckle, Xiongnu type, 3rd–2nd century B.C.</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lisa.gerda-henkel-stiftung.de/videos_projects_watch.php?nav_id=946">Videodocumentation: Xiongnu – the burial site of the Hun prince (Mongolia)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/museums/ubhist/xiongnu.html">The National Museum of Mongolian History :: Xiongnu</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chnmus.net/clzl/node_1573.htm">Xiongnu and the Central Plains: The Collision and Fusion of Civilizations</a>, Henan Provincial Museum exhibition (in Chinese)</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Central_Asia62" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History_of_Central_Asia62" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">History of Central Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Polities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mal'ta%E2%80%93Buret'_culture" title="Mal'ta–Buret' culture">Mal'ta–Buret' culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Vakhsh_culture" title="Vakhsh culture">Vakhsh culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Tagar_culture" title="Tagar culture">Tagar culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Uyuk_culture" title="Uyuk culture">Uyuk culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Pazyryk_culture" title="Pazyryk culture">Pazyryk culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a></li>

<li><a href="Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Guiyi_Circuit" title="Guiyi Circuit">Guiyi Circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li>

<li><a href="Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanians</a></li>

<li><a href="Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></li>

<li><a href="Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li>

<li><a href="Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li>

<li><a href="Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li>

<li><a href="Principality_of_Ushrusana" title="Principality of Ushrusana">Ustrushana</a></li>

<li><a href="Principality_of_Khuttal" title="Principality of Khuttal">Khuttal</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferghana_Kingdom" title="Ferghana Kingdom">Ferghana</a></li>

<li><a href="First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turks</a></li>

<li><a href="Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (<a href="Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Anxi Protectorate</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Ikhshids_of_Sogdia" title="Ikhshids of Sogdia">Ikhshids of Sogdia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Tokhara Yabghus</a></li>

<li><a href="Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></li>

<li><a href="Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz Yabgus</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li>

<li><a href="Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li>

<li><a href="Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></li>

<li><a href="Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></li>

<li><a href="Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a></li>

<li><a href="Ma'munids" title="Ma'munids">Ma'munids</a></li>

<li><a href="Farighunids" title="Farighunids">Farighunids</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Great Seljuq Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li>

<li><a href="Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li>

<li><a href="Sufi_dynasty" title="Sufi dynasty">Sufi dynasty</a></li>

<li><a href="Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart dynasty</a></li>

<li><a href="Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Principality_of_Fergana" title="Principality of Fergana">Principality of Fergana</a></li>

<li><a href="Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Khanate of Bukhara</a></li>

<li><a href="Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Central Asia">Chinese Central Asia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Central_Asian_art" title="Central Asian art">Central Asian art</a></li>

<li><a href="Silk_Road_transmission_of_art" title="Silk Road transmission of art">Silk Road transmission of art</a></li>

<li><a href="Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li>

<li><a href="Serindian_art" title="Serindian art">Serindian art</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">Southern Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sintashta" title="Sintashta">Sintashta</a></li>

<li><a href="Arzhan_culture" title="Arzhan culture">Arzhan kurgan</a></li>

<li><a href="Pazyryk_burials" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk burials</a></li>

<li><a href="Salbyk_kurgan" title="Salbyk kurgan">Salbyk kurgan</a></li>

<li><a href="Filippovka_kurgans" title="Filippovka kurgans">Filippovka kurgans</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Western_China" title="Western China">Western China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bulay%C3%AFq" title="Bulayïq">Bulayïq</a></li>

<li><a href="Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a></li>

<li><a href="Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a></li>

<li><a href="Kizilgaha_caves" title="Kizilgaha caves">Kizilgaha caves</a></li>

<li><a href="Kumtura_Caves" title="Kumtura Caves">Kumtura Caves</a></li>

<li><a href="Subashi_Temple" title="Subashi Temple">Subashi Temple</a></li>

<li><a href="Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a></li>

<li><a href="Miran_(Xinjiang)" title="Miran (Xinjiang)">Miran</a></li>

<li><a href="Rawak_Stupa" title="Rawak Stupa">Rawak</a></li>

<li><a href="Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></li>

<li><a href="Tumxuk" title="Tumxuk">Tumshuq</a></li>

<li><a href="Bezeklik_Caves" title="Bezeklik Caves">Bezeklik Caves</a></li>

<li><a href="Dunhuang_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunhuang Caves">Dunhuang Caves</a></li>

<li><a href="Loulan_Kingdom" title="Loulan Kingdom">Loulan</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="Kingdom of Khotan">Khotan</a></li>

<li><a href="Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a></li>

<li><a href="Beshbalik" title="Beshbalik">Beshbalik</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Noin-Ula_burial_site" title="Noin-Ula burial site">Noin-Ula burial site</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Begash" title="Begash">Begash</a></li>

<li><a href="Issyk_kurgan" title="Issyk kurgan">Issyk kurgan</a></li>

<li><a href="Jankent" title="Jankent">Jankent</a></li>

<li><a href="Karsakpay_inscription" title="Karsakpay inscription">Karsakpay inscription</a></li>

<li><a href="Kerderi" title="Kerderi">Kerderi</a></li>

<li><a href="Krasnyi_Yar_(Kazakhstan)" title="Krasnyi Yar (Kazakhstan)">Krasnyi Yar</a></li>

<li><a href="Merke_Turkic_Sanctuaries" title="Merke Turkic Sanctuaries">Merke Turkic Sanctuaries</a></li>

<li><a href="Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a></li>

<li><a href="Petroglyphs_of_Arpa-Uzen" title="Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen">Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen</a></li>

<li><a href="Petrovka_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrovka settlement">Petrovka settlement</a></li>

<li><a href="Boralday_(archaeological_site)" title="Boralday (archaeological site)">Boralday</a></li>

<li><a href="Sawran_(Kazakhstan)" title="Sawran (Kazakhstan)">Sawran</a></li>

<li><a href="Shilikty" title="Shilikty">Shilikty</a></li>

<li><a href="Steppe_Geoglyphs" title="Steppe Geoglyphs">Steppe Geoglyphs</a></li>

<li><a href="Sumbe_(ancient_settlement)" title="Sumbe (ancient settlement)">Sumbe</a></li>

<li><a href="Talapty_Settlement" title="Talapty Settlement">Talapty Settlement</a></li>

<li><a href="Turkistan_(city)" title="Turkistan (city)">Turkistan (city)</a></li>

<li><a href="Urpek" title="Urpek">Urpek</a></li>

<li><a href="Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi" title="Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi">Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi</a></li>

<li><a href="Araltobe_kurgan" title="Araltobe kurgan">Araltobe kurgan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aigyr-Zhal_2" title="Aigyr-Zhal 2">Aigyr-Zhal 2</a></li>

<li><a href="Balasagun" title="Balasagun">Balasagun</a></li>

<li><a href="Burana_Tower" title="Burana Tower">Burana Tower</a></li>

<li><a href="Issyk-Kul" title="Issyk-Kul">Issyk-Kul</a></li>

<li><a href="Koshoy_Korgon" title="Koshoy Korgon">Koshoy Korgon</a></li>

<li><a href="Manas_Ordo" title="Manas Ordo">Manas Ordo</a></li>

<li><a href="Navekat" title="Navekat">Navekat</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%96zg%C3%B6n" title="Özgön">Özgön</a></li>

<li><a href="Shakh_Fazil" title="Shakh Fazil">Shakh Fazil</a></li>

<li><a href="Suyab" title="Suyab">Suyab</a></li>

<li><a href="Tash_Rabat" title="Tash Rabat">Tash Rabat</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Afrasiyab_(Samarkand)" title="Afrasiyab (Samarkand)">Afrasiyab</a></li>

<li><a href="Akchakhan-Kala" title="Akchakhan-Kala">Akchakhan-Kala</a></li>

<li><a href="Akhsikath" title="Akhsikath">Akhsikath</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Pap" title="Ancient Pap">Ancient Pap</a></li>

<li><a href="Balalyk_Tepe" title="Balalyk Tepe">Balalyk Tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Burchmulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Burchmulla">Burchmulla</a></li>

<li><a href="Dalverzin_Tepe" title="Dalverzin Tepe">Dalverzin Tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Desert_castles_of_ancient_Khorezm" title="Desert castles of ancient Khorezm">Desert castles of ancient Khorezm</a></li>

<li><a href="Fayaz_Tepe" title="Fayaz Tepe">Fayaz Tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Guldursun-Kala" title="Guldursun-Kala">Guldursun-Kala</a></li>

<li><a href="Hazorasp" title="Hazorasp">Hazorasp</a></li>

<li><a href="Itchan_Kala" title="Itchan Kala">Itchan Kala</a></li>

<li><a href="Kafir-kala_(Uzbekistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Uzbekistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li>

<li><a href="Kampir_Tepe" title="Kampir Tepe">Kampir Tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Khalchayan" title="Khalchayan">Khalchayan</a></li>

<li><a href="Khiva" title="Khiva">Khiva</a></li>

<li><a href="Koi_Krylgan_Kala" title="Koi Krylgan Kala">Koi Krylgan Kala</a></li>

<li><a href="Koktepe" title="Koktepe">Koktepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyzyl-Kala" title="Kyzyl-Kala">Kyzyl-Kala</a></li>

<li><a href="Obi-Rakhmat_Grotto" title="Obi-Rakhmat Grotto">Obi-Rakhmat Grotto</a></li>

<li><a href="Poykent" class="mw-redirect" title="Poykent">Poykent</a></li>

<li><a href="Sarmishsay" title="Sarmishsay">Sarmishsay</a></li>

<li><a href="Shahrukhiya" title="Shahrukhiya">Shahrukhiya</a></li>

<li><a href="Siypantosh_Rock_Paintings" title="Siypantosh Rock Paintings">Siypantosh Rock Paintings</a></li>

<li><a href="Tavka_Kurgan" title="Tavka Kurgan">Tavka Kurgan</a></li>

<li><a href="Toprak-Kala" title="Toprak-Kala">Toprak-Kala</a></li>

<li><a href="Varakhsha" title="Varakhsha">Varakhsha</a></li>

<li><a href="Zarautsoy_Rock_Paintings" title="Zarautsoy Rock Paintings">Zarautsoy Rock Paintings</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bunjikat_(archeological_site)" title="Bunjikat (archeological site)">Bunjikat</a></li>

<li><a href="Penjikent" class="mw-redirect" title="Penjikent">Penjikent</a></li>

<li><a href="Ajina_tepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajina tepe">Ajina tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyropolis" title="Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a></li>

<li><a href="Kafir-kala_(Tajikistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Tajikistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li>

<li><a href="Sarazm" title="Sarazm">Sarazm</a></li>

<li><a href="Takht-i_Kuwad" title="Takht-i Kuwad">Takht-i Kuwad</a></li>

<li><a href="Takht-i_Sangin" title="Takht-i Sangin">Takht-i Sangin</a></li>

<li><a href="Kalai_Kafirnigan" title="Kalai Kafirnigan">Kalai Kafirnigan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cave_of_Dzhebel" title="Cave of Dzhebel">Cave of Dzhebel</a></li>

<li><a href="Abiward" title="Abiward">Abiward</a></li>

<li><a href="Altyndepe" title="Altyndepe">Altyndepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Anau_culture" title="Anau culture">Anau culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Dev-Kesken" class="mw-redirect" title="Dev-Kesken">Dev-Kesken</a></li>

<li><a href="Gonur_Depe" title="Gonur Depe">Gonur Depe</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeitun" title="Jeitun">Jeitun</a></li>

<li><a href="Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Konye-Urgench</a></li>

<li><a href="Kutlug_Timur_Minaret" title="Kutlug Timur Minaret">Kutlug Timur Minaret</a></li>

<li><a href="Monjukli_Depe" title="Monjukli Depe">Monjukli Depe</a></li>

<li><a href="Namazga-Tepe" title="Namazga-Tepe">Namazga-Tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Togolok" title="Togolok">Togolok</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li>

<li><a href="Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a></li>

<li><a href="Dilberjin_Tepe" title="Dilberjin Tepe">Dilberjin Tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Hadda%2C_Afghanistan" title="Hadda, Afghanistan">Hadda</a></li>

<li><a href="Tapa_Shotor" title="Tapa Shotor">Tapa Shotor</a></li>

<li><a href="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi</a></li>

<li><a href="Shotorak_monastery" title="Shotorak monastery">Shotorak</a></li>

<li><a href="Paitava" title="Paitava">Paitava</a></li>

<li><a href="Bimaran" title="Bimaran">Bimaran</a></li>

<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tapa-i_Kafariha_Monastery" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Tapa-i Kafariha Monastery">Tapa-i Kafariha</a></li>

<li><a href="Mes_Aynak" title="Mes Aynak">Mes Aynak</a></li>

<li><a href="Fondukistan_monastery" title="Fondukistan monastery">Fondukistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li>

<li><a href="Tapa_Sardar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapa Sardar">Tapa Sardar</a></li>

<li><a href="Tepe_Narenj" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepe Narenj">Tepe Narenj</a></li>

<li><a href="Takht-e_Rostam" title="Takht-e Rostam">Takht-e Rostam</a></li>

<li><a href="Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li>

<li><a href="Tillya_Tepe" title="Tillya Tepe">Tillya Tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Yemshi_Tepe" title="Yemshi Tepe">Yemshi Tepe</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexandria_Prophthasia" title="Alexandria Prophthasia">Alexandria Prophthasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Aq_Kupruk" title="Aq Kupruk">Aq Kupruk</a></li>

<li><a href="Asqalan%2C_Afghanistan" title="Asqalan, Afghanistan">Asqalan</a></li>

<li><a href="Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li>

<li><a href="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa</a></li>

<li><a href="Darra-e_Kur" title="Darra-e Kur">Darra-e Kur</a></li>

<li><a href="Dasht-e_Nawar" title="Dasht-e Nawar">Dasht-e Nawar</a></li>

<li><a href="Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan" title="Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan">Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Firozkoh" title="Firozkoh">Firozkoh</a></li>

<li><a href="Gawhar_Shad_Mausoleum" title="Gawhar Shad Mausoleum">Gawhar Shad Mausoleum</a></li>

<li><a href="Haji_Piyada" title="Haji Piyada">Haji Piyada</a></li>

<li><a href="Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li>

<li><a href="Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a></li>

<li><a href="Musalla_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Musalla Complex">Musalla Complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Nagara_(ancient_city)" title="Nagara (ancient city)">Nagara</a></li>

<li><a href="Qala-i-Jangi" title="Qala-i-Jangi">Qala-i-Jangi</a></li>

<li><a href="Surkh_Kotal" title="Surkh Kotal">Surkh Kotal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bandian_complex" title="Bandian complex">Bandian complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Mount_Khajeh" title="Mount Khajeh">Mount Khajeh</a></li>

<li><a href="Shahr-e_Sukhteh" title="Shahr-e Sukhteh">Shahr-e Sukhteh</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artifacts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sokh_snakes" title="Sokh snakes">Sokh snakes</a></li>

<li><a href="Orlat_plaques" title="Orlat plaques">Orlat plaques</a></li>

<li><a href="Hephthalite_silver_bowl" title="Hephthalite silver bowl">Hephthalite silver bowl</a></li>

<li><a href="Chilek_silver_bowl" title="Chilek silver bowl">Chilek silver bowl</a></li>

<li><a href="Gardez_Ganesha" title="Gardez Ganesha">Gardez Ganesha</a></li>

<li><a href="Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">Mogao Christian painting</a></li>

<li><a href="Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho" title="Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho">Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho</a></li>

<li><a href="Penjikent_murals" title="Penjikent murals">Penjikent murals</a></li>

<li><a href="Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampul tapestry</a></li>

<li><a href="Sogdian_Da%C4%93n%C4%81s" title="Sogdian Daēnās">Sogdian Daēnās</a></li>

<li><a href="Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li>

<li><a href="Bimaran_Casket" class="mw-redirect" title="Bimaran Casket">Bimaran Casket</a></li>

<li><a href="Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li>

<li><a href="Kabul_hoard" title="Kabul hoard">Kabul hoard</a></li>

<li><a href="Aramaic_Inscription_of_Laghman" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic Inscription of Laghman">Aramaic Inscription of Laghman</a></li>

<li><a href="Kandahar_Aramaic_inscription" title="Kandahar Aramaic inscription">Kandahar Aramaic inscription</a></li>

<li><a href="Pul-i-Darunteh_Aramaic_inscription" title="Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription">Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription</a></li>

<li><a href="Kandahar_Bilingual_Rock_Inscription" title="Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription">Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription</a></li>

<li><a href="Kandahar_Greek_Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka">Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka</a></li>

<li><a href="Afrasiab_murals" title="Afrasiab murals">Afrasiab murals</a></li>

<li><a href="Stamp_seal_(BM_119999)" title="Stamp seal (BM 119999)">Stamp seal (BM 119999)</a></li>

<li><a href="Seal_of_Khingila" title="Seal of Khingila">Seal of Khingila</a></li>

<li><a href="Siberian_Ice_Maiden" title="Siberian Ice Maiden">Siberian Ice Maiden</a></li>

<li><a href="Ai-Khanoum_plaque" title="Ai-Khanoum plaque">Ai-Khanoum plaque</a></li>

<li><a href="Saksanokhur_gold_buckle" title="Saksanokhur gold buckle">Saksanokhur gold buckle</a></li>

<li><a href="Boar_hunter_(Hermitage_Museum)" title="Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)">Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)</a></li>

<li><a href="Siberian_Collection_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Siberian Collection of Peter the Great">Siberian Collection of Peter the Great</a></li>

<li><a href="Silver_Deer_of_Bilge_Qaghan" title="Silver Deer of Bilge Qaghan">Silver Deer</a> and <a href="Golden_Crown_of_Bilge_Qaghan" title="Golden Crown of Bilge Qaghan">Golden Crown of Bilge Qaghan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sixteen_Kingdoms99" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sixteen_Kingdoms99" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians" title="Upheaval of the Five Barbarians">Upheaval of the Five Barbarians</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_of_Yongjia" title="Disaster of Yongjia">Disaster of Yongjia</a></li>

<li><a href="Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Shi Le's conquest of North China</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Xiangguo" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Xiangguo">Battle of Xiangguo</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Liantai" title="Battle of Liantai">Battle of Liantai</a></li>

<li><a href="Huan_Wen's_Northern_Expeditions" title="Huan Wen's Northern Expeditions">Huan Wen's Expeditions</a></li>

<li><a href="Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Fu Jian's unification of North China</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Fei_River" title="Battle of Fei River">Battle of Fei River</a></li>

<li><a href="Liu_Yu's_Northern_Expeditions" title="Liu Yu's Northern Expeditions">Liu Yu's Expeditions</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei's unification of North China</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The 16 Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang (397–460)</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Di_(Five_Barbarians)" title="Di (Five Barbarians)">Di</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cheng-Han" title="Cheng-Han">Cheng-Han (304–347)</a></li>

<li><a href="Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin (351–394)</a></li>

<li><a href="Later_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Later Liang (386–403)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao (319–351)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Former_Yan" title="Former Yan">Former Yan (337–370)</a></li>

<li><a href="Later_Yan" title="Later Yan">Later Yan (384–409)</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Qin" title="Western Qin">Western Qin (385–431)</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Southern Liang (397–414)</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Yan" title="Southern Yan">Southern Yan (398–410)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin (384–417)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Former_Liang" title="Former Liang">Former Liang (318–376)</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Western Liang (400–421)</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Yan" title="Northern Yan">Northern Yan (407–436)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Short-lived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Western_Yan" title="Western Yan">Western Yan (384–394)</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Tribes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Yuwen" title="Yuwen">Yuwen</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chouchi" title="Chouchi">Chouchi (296–580)</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei (386–535)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Involved</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a></li>

<li><a href="Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a></li>

<li><a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li>

<li><a href="Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a></li>

<li><a href="Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key personalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Murong_Chui" title="Murong Chui">Murong Chui</a></li>

<li><a href="Emperor_Daowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei">Tuoba Gui</a></li>

<li><a href="Emperor_Taiwu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei">Tuoba Tao</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Histories of the Era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Spring_and_Autumn_Annals_of_the_Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms">Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inner_Asia_history_series96" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Inner_Asia_history_series96" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> history series</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empires</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li>

<li><a href="Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li>

<li><a href="G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a>

<ul><li><a href="First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern Turkic Khaganate</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li>

<li><a href="Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tatar_confederation" title="Tatar confederation">Tatar</a></li>

<li><a href="Khamag_Mongol" title="Khamag Mongol">Khamag Mongol</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li>

<li><a href="Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese empires</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Han_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Han dynasty in Inner Asia">Han</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Han–Xiongnu War">against Xiongnu</a></li>

<li><a href="Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions">Protectorate of the Western Regions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chief_Official_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Chief Official of the Western Regions">Chief Official</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Tang_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Tang dynasty in Inner Asia">Tang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tang_campaigns_against_the_Western_Turks" title="Tang campaigns against the Western Turks">against Western Turks</a> / <a href="Tang_campaign_against_the_Eastern_Turks" title="Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks">Eastern Turks</a></li>

<li><a href="Tang%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Tang–Tibet relations">against Tibet</a></li>

<li><a href="Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_North" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the North">Mongolian Plateau</a></li>

<li><a href="Beiting_Protectorate" title="Beiting Protectorate">Beiting</a></li>

<li><a href="Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Tarim Basin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Liao" title="Northern Liao">Northern Liao</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Liao" title="Eastern Liao">Eastern Liao</a></li>

<li><a href="Later_Liao" title="Later Liao">Later Liao</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">against Northwest khanates</a></li>

<li><a href="Manchuria_under_Yuan_rule" title="Manchuria under Yuan rule">Manchuria</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongolia_under_Yuan_rule" title="Mongolia under Yuan rule">Mongolia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Tibet</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Ming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Yongle_Emperor's_campaigns_against_the_Mongols" title="Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols">against Mongols</a></li>

<li><a href="Ming%E2%80%93Turpan_conflict" title="Ming–Turpan conflict">against Turpan</a></li>

<li><a href="Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria</a></li>

<li><a href="Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Tibet</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">against Dzungar</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">genocide</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a></li>

<li><a href="Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="The_Cambridge_History_of_Inner_Asia" title="The Cambridge History of Inner Asia">The Cambridge History of Inner Asia</a></li>

<li><a href="Greater_Central_Asia" title="Greater Central Asia">Greater Central Asia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li>

<li><a href="Tartary" title="Tartary">Tartary</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_Tartary" title="Chinese Tartary">Chinese Tartary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a> (<a href="Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a>)</li>

<li><a href="China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a></li>

<li><a href="Greater_China" title="Greater China">Greater China</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires160" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Empires160" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li>

<li><a href="Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a>

<li><a href="Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li>

<li><a href="Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li>

<li><a href="Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li>

<li><a href="Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li>

<li><a href="Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li>

</ul></li>

<li><a href="Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li>

<li><a href="Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li>

<li><a href="Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li>

<li><a href="Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li>

<li>Magadha

<ul><li><a href="Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li>

<li><a href="Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li>

<li><a href="Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li>

<li><a href="Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li>

<li><a href="Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a>

<ul><li><a href="Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li>

<li><a href="Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li>

<li><a href="Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a>

<ul><li><a href="Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li>

<li><a href="Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li>

<li><a href="Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li>

<li><a href="Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li>

<li><a href="Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li>

<li><a href="Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li>

<li><a href="Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a>

<ul><li><a href="First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pagan_kingdom" title="Pagan kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li>

<li><a href="Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>

<ul><li><a href="Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li>

<li><a href="Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li>

<li><a href="Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a>

<ul><li><a href="Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a>

<li><a href="Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li>

<li><a href="Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li>

<li><a href="Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li>

<li><a href="Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a>

<li><a href="Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li>

<li><a href="Rashtrakuta_Empire" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li>

<li><a href="Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li>

<li><a href="Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li>

<li><a href="Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li>

<li><a href="Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li>

<li><a href="Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li>

<li><a href="Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li>

<li><a href="Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a>

<li><a href="Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li>

<li><a href="Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li>

<li><a href="Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a>

<ul><li><a href="Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li>

<li><a href="Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a>

<ul><li><a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li>

<li><a href="Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li>

<li><a href="Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li>

<li><a href="Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li>

<li><a href="Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li>

<li><a href="Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li>

<li><a href="Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li>

<li><a href="Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiwanaku_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li>

<li><a href="Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li>

<li><a href="Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li>

<li><a href="Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li>

<li><a href="Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li>

<li><a href="Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a>

<ul><li><a href="First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li>

<li><a href="T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li>

<li><a href="Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li>

<li><a href="%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a>

<li><a href="Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li>

<li><a href="Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li>

<li><a href="L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li>

<li><a href="Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li>

<li><a href="Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li>

<li><a href="Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a>

<ul><li><a href="First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li>

<li><a href="Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a>

<li><a href="Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a>

<ul><li><a href="First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a>

<ul><li><a href="First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a>

<ul><li><a href="German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li>

<li><a href="Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li>

<li><a href="Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li>

<li><a href="Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li>

<li><a href="Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li>

<li><a href="Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Maratha_Empire" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a>

<ul><li><a href="First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a>

<ul><li><a href="Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li>

<li><a href="Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li>

<li><a href="Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li>

<li><a href="Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Polish</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a>

<ul><li><a href="Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish</a></li>

<li><a href="Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li>

<li><a href="%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a>

<li><a href="Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li>

<li><a href="Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial28" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="U.S._imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. imperialism">American</a></li>

<li><a href="Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Austrian_colonial_policy" title="Austrian colonial policy">attempts</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a>

<ul><li><a href="English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li>

<li><a href="Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li>

<li><a href="Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li>

<li><a href="French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li>

<li><a href="German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a>

<ul><li><a href="German_colonial_projects_before_1871" title="German colonial projects before 1871">attempts</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stato_da_M%C3%A0r" title="Stato da Màr">Venetian</a></li>

<li><a href="Genoese_colonies" title="Genoese colonies">Genoese</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Hospitaller colonization of the Americas">Maltese</a></li>

<li><a href="Italy_and_the_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Italy and the colonization of the Americas">attempts</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_possessions_of_Norway" title="List of possessions of Norway">Norwegian</a></li>

<li><a href="Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li>

<li><a href="Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li>

<li><a href="Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li>

<li><a href="Colonization_attempts_by_Poland" title="Colonization attempts by Poland">attempts</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a>

<ul><li><a href="Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Catalan-Aragonese</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Basque_whaling" title="History of Basque whaling">Basque</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li>

<li><a href="African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">Academic</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_imperialism" title="Ecological imperialism">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_imperialism" title="Green imperialism">Green</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_Imperialists" title="Liberal Imperialists">Liberal</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet</a></li>

<li><a href="Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">Theories</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Huns147" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Huns147" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Origin_of_the_Huns" title="Origin of the Huns">Origin of the Huns</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">History of the Huns</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_kings_of_the_Huns" title="List of kings of the Huns">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Balamber" title="Balamber">Balamber</a></li>

<li><a href="Uldin" title="Uldin">Uldin</a></li>

<li><a href="Octar" title="Octar">Octar</a></li>

<li><a href="Charaton" title="Charaton">Charaton</a></li>

<li><a href="Rugila" title="Rugila">Rugila</a></li>

<li><a href="Bleda" title="Bleda">Bleda</a></li>

<li><a href="Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a></li>

<li><a href="Ellac" title="Ellac">Ellac</a></li>

<li><a href="Dengizich" title="Dengizich">Dengizich</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernak" title="Ernak">Ernak</a></li>

<li><a href="Zilgibis" title="Zilgibis">Zilgibis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aigan_(Hun_commander)" title="Aigan (Hun commander)">Aigan</a></li>

<li><a href="Alathar" title="Alathar">Alathar</a></li>

<li><a href="Althias" title="Althias">Althias</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambazuces" title="Ambazuces">Ambazuces</a></li>

<li><a href="Apsich" title="Apsich">Apsich</a></li>

<li><a href="Ascan" title="Ascan">Ascan</a></li>

<li><a href="Ascum" title="Ascum">Ascum</a></li>

<li><a href="Basich" title="Basich">Basich</a></li>

<li><a href="Bochas_(Hun)" title="Bochas (Hun)">Bochas</a></li>

<li><a href="Chalazar" title="Chalazar">Chalazar</a></li>

<li><a href="Chelchal" title="Chelchal">Chelchal</a></li>

<li><a href="Cours_(Byzantine_general)" title="Cours (Byzantine general)">Cours</a></li>

<li><a href="Elmingir" title="Elmingir">Elmingir</a></li>

<li><a href="Hormidac" title="Hormidac">Hormidac</a></li>

<li><a href="Kursich" title="Kursich">Kursich</a></li>

<li><a href="Laudaricus" title="Laudaricus">Laudaricus</a></li>

<li><a href="Mundus_(magister_militum)" title="Mundus (magister militum)">Mundus</a></li>

<li><a href="Odolgan" title="Odolgan">Odolgan</a></li>

<li><a href="Optila" title="Optila">Optila</a></li>

<li><a href="Ragnaris" title="Ragnaris">Ragnaris</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanoeces" title="Sanoeces">Sanoeces</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigizan" title="Sigizan">Sigizan</a></li>

<li><a href="Simmas" title="Simmas">Simmas</a></li>

<li><a href="Sunicas" title="Sunicas">Sunicas</a></li>

<li><a href="Tarrach" title="Tarrach">Tarrach</a></li>

<li><a href="Thraustila" title="Thraustila">Thraustila</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuldila" title="Tuldila">Tuldila</a></li>

<li><a href="Turgun" title="Turgun">Turgun</a></li>

<li><a href="Tyranx" title="Tyranx">Tyranx</a></li>

<li><a href="Uldach" title="Uldach">Uldach</a></li>

<li><a href="Zolban" title="Zolban">Zolban</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Noblemen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atakam" title="Atakam">Atakam</a></li>

<li><a href="Emnetzur" title="Emnetzur">Emnetzur</a></li>

<li><a href="Gordas" title="Gordas">Gordas</a></li>

<li><a href="Mamas_(Hun_prince)" title="Mamas (Hun prince)">Mamas</a></li>

<li><a href="Mundzuk" title="Mundzuk">Mundzuk</a></li>

<li><a href="Oebarsius" title="Oebarsius">Oebarsius</a></li>

<li><a href="Onegesius" title="Onegesius">Onegesius</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultzindur" title="Ultzindur">Ultzindur</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diplomats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Berichus" title="Berichus">Berichus</a></li>

<li><a href="Edeko" title="Edeko">Edeko</a></li>

<li><a href="Eslas" title="Eslas">Eslas</a></li>

<li><a href="Scottas" title="Scottas">Scottas</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other notable Huns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adamis" title="Adamis">Adamis</a></li>

<li><a href="Donatus_(Huns)" title="Donatus (Huns)">Donatus</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskam" title="Eskam">Eskam</a></li>

<li><a href="Ildico" title="Ildico">Ildico</a></li>

<li><a href="Kreka" title="Kreka">Kreka</a></li>

<li><a href="Vadamerca" title="Vadamerca">Vadamerca</a></li>

<li><a href="Zerco" title="Zerco">Zerco</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hunnic_art" title="Hunnic art">Hunnic art</a></li>

<li><a href="Hunnic_language" title="Hunnic language">Hunnic language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hunnic_raid_of_395" title="Hunnic raid of 395">Hunnic invasion of the Sasanian Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Tanais_River" title="Battle of the Tanais River">Battle of the Tanais River</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Florence_(405)" title="Siege of Florence (405)">Siege of Florence</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Faesulae_(406)" title="Battle of Faesulae (406)">Battle of Faesulae</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Arles_(435)" title="Battle of Arles (435)">Battle of Arles</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Utus" title="Battle of the Utus">Battle of the Utus</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Catalaunian_Plains" title="Battle of the Catalaunian Plains">Battle of the Catalaunian Plains</a></li>

<li><a href="Sack_of_Aquileia" title="Sack of Aquileia">Sack of Aquileia</a></li>

<li><a href="Sack_of_Padua" title="Sack of Padua">Sack of Padua</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Milan" title="Siege of Milan">Siege of Milan</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Nedao" title="Battle of Nedao">Battle of Nedao</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Bassianae" title="Battle of Bassianae">Battle of Bassianae</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other Hunnic peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchons</a></li>

<li><a href="Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li>

<li><a href="Huna_people" title="Huna people">Hunas</a></li>

<li><a href="Iranian_Huns" title="Iranian Huns">Iranian Huns</a></li>

<li><a href="Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></li>

<li><a href="Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezak</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Caucasian_Huns" title="North Caucasian Huns">North Caucasian Huns</a></li>

<li><a href="Xionites" title="Xionites">Xionites</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attila_in_popular_culture" title="Attila in popular culture">Attila in popular culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Akatziri" title="Akatziri">Akatziri tribe</a></li>

<li><a href="Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li>

<li><a href="Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_the_Sz%C3%A9kelys" title="Origin of the Székelys">Origin of the Székelys</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188836#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata726" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188836#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata726" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85062711">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567099">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007531302805171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/9e59567f-753b-46ed-8e29-5d50e42208e7">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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